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FUNDAMENTALS  OF 
SOCIOLOGY 

WITH   SPECIAL 

EMPHASIS  UPON  COMMUNITY    AND 

EDUCATIONAL  PROBLEMS 

BY 

EDWIN  A.  KIRKPATRICK,  B.S.,  M.Ph. 

Author  of  "  Inductive  Psychology,"  "  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study  " 

"  Genetic  Psychology,"  "  The  Individual  in  the  Making  " 

''Use  of  Money" 


■3350? 


BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

^       12 


COnrUGHT,   1916,  BY  EDWIN  A.   KIRKPATRICX 
AU,  RIGHTS  RXSXRVKD 


Vbr  SttirMflit  9reM 

CAMBXIDGR  .  MASSACHUSETTS 


KU3 


PREFACE 

It  may  seem  presumptuous  for  a  specialist  from 
another  field  to  attempt  to  outline  for  young  students 
the  essentials  in  this  field,  with  its  immense  literature 
of  facts,  researches,  theories,  and  speculations,  from 
which  is  just  emerging  the  new  science  of  sociology 
that  must  be  the  basis  of  all  successful  social  reforms. 
Yet  freedom  from  having  dwelt  on  details  is  an  advan- 
tage rather  than  a  disadvantage  in  getting  and  pre- 
senting a  general  view  of  a  subject. 

Again,  sociology  both  scientific  and  practical,  has 
been  a  subject  of  interest  to  the  author  for  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century,  during  which  time  he  has  been 
gaining  clearer  ideas  without  having  them  fixed  by  any 
one  school  of  thought.  Becoming  convinced  that  soci- 
ology may  be  of  as  much  value  to  education  as  psy- 
chology, he  prepared  a  course  which  he  has  given  to 
his  own  students  and  to  students  in  summer  sessions  at 
the  Universities  of  West  Virginia  and  of  Vermont. 
The  response  of  those  students,  both  elementary  and 
advanced,  confirmed  his  belief  in  the  value  of  the  sub- 
ject and  gave  some  confidence  in  the  suitability  of  his 
presentation  for  promoting  scientific  and  practical  think- 
ing and  research  in  sociological  lines. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  at  completeness  of  treat- 
ment of  any  topic,  but  no  effort  has  been  spared  to 
reveal  the  fundamental  influences  affecting  group  life 
and  action  in  its  earlier  beginnings  and  in  present- 
day  life.   Technical  terms  are  avoided  because  they  are 


ir  PREFACE 

numerous  and  not  well  established  in  meaning  and 
would  contribute  to  confusion  rather  than  to  exactness 
of  thought. 

It  is  expected  that  teachers  who  use  this  book  will 
have  it  supplemented  by  reading,  discussion,  and  re- 
search to  a  considerable  extent,  and  that  they  will  pass 
lightly  over  some  topics  and  spend  a  great  deal  of 
time  on  others  that  are  perhaps  merely  mentioned  here. 
It  is  also  hoped  that  students  will  be  accorded  a  good 
deal  of  liberty  as  to  the  special  lines  of  study  they 
pursue. 

Education  is  now  such  an  important  phase  of  social 
life  that  every  student  of  sociology  should  become 
familiar  with  its  purposes  and  problems,  yet  the  large 
proportion  of  space  devoted  to  it  in  this  book  will  per- 
haps make  the  book  most  interesting  for  those  preparing 
for  the  teaching  profession. 

The  questions  asked  and  the  reports  and  facts  called 
for  at  the  close  of  each  chapter  are  intended  to  be  sug- 
gestive to  teacher  and  pupils  rather  than  directive. 
Little  or  much  may  be  done  in  those  lines,  as  desired 
or  as  time  permits.  In  all  cases  pupils  shoidd  do  some 
reading,  observing,  and  writing  on  special  topics. 

A  complete  bibliography  would  be  impossible,  while 
the  value  of  exact  references  to  the  precise  books, 
chapters,  and  articles  that  it  is  best  to  read  in  connec- 
tion with  each  topic  depends  so  much  upon  the  length 
of  the  course,  the  library  facilities  of  the  institution, 
the  age  and  interest  of  students,  and  the  purpose  of 
the  instructor  that  the  idea  of  giving  such  detailed 
references  was  abandoned.  At  the  close  of  the  book 
will  be  found  a  selected  list  of  books  that  the  author 
believes  will  aid  in  introducing  readers  to  a  knowledge 


PREFACE  V 

of  the  literature  treating  of  all  phases  of  sociology.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  refer  to  the  exhaustless  periodical 
literature  except  by  giving  the  names  of  a  few  journals 
where  many  valuable  articles  may  be  found. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  prove  interesting  and 
clai'ifying  to  general  readers  and  that  it  will  accelerate 
the  movement  toward  increasing  the  prominence  of 
sociological  study  in  colleges  and  normal  schools  and 
even  in  certain  high  schools. 

Thanks  are  due  to  my  daughter  for  clerical  assist- 
ance, to  my  wife  for  literary  help,  and  to  Louis  M. 
Wilson  and  Dr.  J.  P.  Porter,  of  Clark  University,  for 
courtesies  and  suggestions. 

E.  A.  K. 

December  10, 1915. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


li  ftp  ://www.arcli  ive.org/details/fundamentalsofsoOOkirkiala 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  I.  Introduction 

Nature  of  sociology  —  Relation  to  other  sciences  —  The  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  social  phenomena  —  Exercises     ...      1 

Chapter  II.  Evolution  of  Group  Action 

The  fonnation  of  groups  —  Geographical  influences  —  In- 
fluence of  group  upon  group  —  Likeness  and  difference  in  group 
action  —  Leaders  —  Effect  of  leaders  on  customs  and  classes  — 
Products  of  group  action  —  Exercises 7 

Chapter  m.  The  Biological  View  of  Human 
Development 

Man's  chief  means  of  survival  —  Balance  of  nature  —  The  law 
of  diminishing  returns  —  The  law  of  Malthus  —  Growth  of  pop- 
ulation—  Evolution  of  human  characteristics  —  Eugenics  — 
Exercises 19 

Chapter  TV.  A  Psychological  View  op 
Behavior  and  Needs 

Consciousness  and  group  behavior  —  The  social  instincts  of 
man  —  Common  needs  of  animals  and  human  beings  —  Higher 
human  needs  and  instincts  —  Classification  of  sociological 
phenomena  —  Exercises 82 

Chapter  V.  Economic  Needs  and  Activities 

Needs,  values,  and  wealth  —  Economic  activity  and  coQpera- 
tion  —  Burdensome  classes  —  Economic  consumption  of  wealth 
—  Tools  and  wealth  production  —  Machines  and  industries  — 
Machines,  capital,  and  managers  —  Institutions  and  production 


viii  CONTENTS 

—  Advertising  and  standardization  of  products  —  Machine  pro- 
duction and  growth  of  cities  —  EflBciency  of  workers  —  Regula- 
tion of  industries  —  Exercises 41 

Chapter  VI.  Protective  Needs  and  Activities 

Primitive  protective  activities  —  Development  of  the  institu- 
tions of  government  —  Internal  protection  —  Development  of 
laws  —  Protection  against  the  elements  and  disease  —  Protection 
against  accidents  —  Protection  of  the  weak  —  Protection,  pre- 
vention, and  control  by  government  —  Exercises  ....    59 

Chapter  VII.  Recreative  Needs  and  Activities 

The  play  instinct  —  Play  and  recreation  in  relation  to  work  — 
Increase  in  recreative  needs  and  activities  —  Development  of 
games  and  amusements  —  Commercialized  and  institutionalized 
recreations  —  Control  of  recreations  —  Exercises    ....    76 

Chapter  VIII.  Cultural  Needs  and  Activities 

Relation  of  culture  to  play  and  work  —  Social  character  of 
culture  —  Transmission,  exchange,  and  fusion  of  culture  —  In- 
vention and  culture  —  Institutions  and  culture  —  Culture  and 
life  —  Exercises 84 

Chapter  IX.  Social  Needs  and  Activities 

Strength  of  social  needs  —  Specialization  of  social  intercourse       V 

—  Institutions  and  social  life  —  Social  classes  -^r  Social  rules  — 

—  Exercises 92 

Chapter  X.  Moral  and  Religious  Needs  and 
Activities 

Relation  of  morals,  religion,  and  custom  —  Conditions  and 
morals  —  Morals  and  punishment  —  Group  loyalty  —  Enlarge- 
ment and  specialization  of  regulative  influences  —  Institutions 
and  public  opinion  and  morals  —  Utility  and  morals  —  Scientific 
knowledge  and  religious  belief  —  Religious  observances  de- 
creasing —  Religion  still  powerful  —  Exercises 101 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  XI.  Educational  Needs  and 
Activities  — ^General 

Education  a  need  of  every  social  group  —  Character  of  primi- 
tive education  —  The  character  of  civilized  education  —  Aims 
and  functions  of  the  schools  —  Organization  and  control  of 
schools  —  School  administration  —  Marking,  examinations,  and 
tests  —  Standardization  in  education  —  General  and  vocational 
education  —  Exercises 119 


Chapter  XII.  Educational  Needs  and 
^  Activities  —  Elementary 

General  character  of  elementary  education  —  General  symbol 
knowledge,  or  reading  and  writing  — Economic  education  —  Pro- 
tective education  —  Cultural  education  —  Recreational  and 
social  education  —  Moral  and  religious  education  —  Exercises  .  145 

Chapter  XITI.  Educational  Needs  and  Activities 
(;_.  — Intermediate  and  Secondary 

Specialization  —  General  and  vocational  education  —  Greneral 
and  vocational  courses  —  Exercises 157 

Chapter  XIV.  Educational  Needs  and 
D         Activities  —  Higher 

Development  and  dominance  of  higher  education  —  Scholas- 
tic standards  versus  usefulness  —  Tests  of  the  results  of  general 
and  vocational  education  —  Higher  vocational  education  — 
Exercises 172 

Chapter  XV.  The  Family  as  a  Social  Group 

AND  AS  AN  Institution 

The  smallest  imspecialized  social  group  —  The  family  as  an 
institution  —  Marriage  customs  —  Varieties  of  the  family  — 
The  socializing  influence  of  the  family  —  Regulation  of  mar- 
riage —  Divorce  —  Family  life  and  modem  conditions  —  Ex- 
ercises  186 


z  CONTENTS 

Chapter  XVI.  The  Community  and  its  Functions 

The  primitive  community  —  The  modem  coimnimity  — 
Commmiity  institutions  and  progress  —  Social  progress  and 
community  action  —  Community  problems  —  Rural  and  urban 
communities  —  Exercises 201 

Chapter  XVII.  Community  Studies  — 
X    General  Suggestions 

Value  —  Purposes  of  a  survey  —  How  surveys  are  made  — 
Geographical  conditions  —  Population  —  Housing  —  Institu- 
tions —  Effects  of  rural  and  urban  life  —  Exercises  ....  215 

Chapter  XVlJl.  Community  Studies  — 
^  Economic  and  Protective 

Economic  conditions  and  public  finances  —  Economic  re- 
sources and  activities  —  Specific  figures  to  be  obtained  —  Protec- 
tion against  crime  and  injustice  —  Protection  against  disease  and 
accident  —  Protective  regulation  and  education  —  Specific  facta 
to  be  obtained 233 

Chapter  XIX.  Community  Studies  —  Recrea- 


Recreational  facilities  —  Recreation  facts  to  be  collected  — 
Cultural  influences  —  Cultural  facts  to  be  observed  or  estimated 
—  Social  intercourse  —  Social  facts  to  be  obtained  — ^Religious 
activity  —  Facts  to  be  obtained  regarding  churches    .      .      .  248 

^   Chapter  XX.  Community  Studies  — 
Educational  Survey 

General  considerations  —  School  equipment  and  control  — 
School  finances  —  Educational  efficiency  —  Social  value  of  the 
school  —  Specific  facts  to  be  tabulated 259 

BiBLIOOBAPHT 277 

Index 289 


-^OC)\<W^ 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Nature  of  Sociology.  Sociology  has  for  its  subject- 
matter  the  life  and  behavior  of  human  beings  in  groups 
and  it  seeks  to  formulate  the  laws  governing  group 
activities.  It  concerns  itself  with  the  products  of  social 
action  in  the  form  of  customs,  institutions,  and  laws, 
and  with  all  influences,  conscious  and  unconscious,  in- 
volved in  cooperating  for  the  securing  of  common  ends. 
In  its  broadest  view  it  includes  the  study  of  the  nature 
and  history  of  man,  the  formation  and  behavior  of 
family,  community,  and  national  groups,  and  the  evolu- 
tion of  all  that  we  call  civilization.  Its  phenomena  may 
be  studied  in  any  group  of  people  acting  for  common 
ends,  such  as  a  hunting  party,  a  group  of  students  form- 
ing a  new  literary  society  or  an  athletic  association. 
Sociology  must  consider  how  groups  form,  increase,  de- 
velop, retrograde,  unite,  separate,  cooperate,  compete, 
and  dissolve  or  survive  as  a  group. 

The  laws  revealed  by  the  science  of  sociology  may  bo 
used  in  directing  groups  of  people  in  efficient  activity 
toward  the  satisfaction  of  common  desires.  On  the 
negative  side  it  should  show  how  poverty,  crime,  and 
other  weakening  and  disturbing  activities  may  be  elimi- 
nated. Sociology  has  often  been  defined  as  the  science 
of  society,  but  this  only  opens  the  way  for  a  more  diffi- 
cult definition  of  what  is  meant  by  society.  The  state- 


2  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ment  that  sociology  is  the  science  of  human  association 
means  nearly  the  same  and  is  a  little  clearer. 

Most  sociologists  have  given  a  good  deal  of  promi- 
nence to  the  subjective  states  of  the  individuals  con- 
stituting a  social  group,  but  now  that  psychology  is 
becoming  more  objective  or  behavioristic,  there  is  reason 
for  giving  more  prominence  to  the  objective  behavior 
of  groups  of  people  and  less  to  their  supposed  mental 
states.  We  must  recognize  that  just  as  unconscious  and 
instinctive  impulses  play  a  large  part  in  the  actions  of 
individuals,  so  also  do  they  in  the  actions  of  groups  of 
people.  Sociology  will  be  more  scientific  if  it  is  based 
primarily  on  what  groups  of  people  do  and  secondarily 
upon  their  subjective  mental  states. 

Relation  to  other  sciences.  Sociology  as  a  science 
includes  many  other  sciences  and  utilizes  facts  from  all 
fields  of  knowledge.  It  is  related  to  biology,  since  man  is 
one  of  the  many  species  of  animals  inhabiting  the  earth, 
and  to  physiology,  since  the  actions  of  men  depend  upon 
their  physical  condition.  Geography  in  considering 
earth  as  the  home  of  man  is  to  a  considerable  extent 
sociological  in  character.  Anthropology  and  ethnology 
contribute  to  sociology  in  describing  the  physical  struc- 
ture of  men  and  the  products  of  their  manual  activities. 
History  furnishes  all  sorts  of  facts  for  the  consideration 
of  the  sociologist,  while  all  the  languages  and  the  science 
of  philology  supply  facts  and  truths  regarding  social 
actions  in  connection  with  which  the  various  languages 
were  formed.  Ethics  and  religion  reveal  important  in- 
fluences concerned  in  the  regulation  of  conduct  of  groups 
of  people.  Psychology  supplies  many  important  facts 
and  laws  which  largely  determine  the  character  of  group 
life  and  of  social  action. 


INTRODUCTION  8 

There  are  other  fields  of  knowledge  that  may  be  re- 
garded as  not  merely  related  to  sociology  but  as  divisions 
of  the  subject.  One  of  the  most  prominent  of  these  is 
the  science  of  economics,  which  deals  with  the  activities 
of  men  involved  in  producing,  distributing,  and  consum- 
ing things  of  value.  Political  science  is  another  important 
division  of  sociology  dealing  especially  with  the  regu- 
lation of  human  conduct.  Social  psychology  from  one 
point  of  view  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  division,  though 
it  is  more  properly  a  science  upon  which  sociology  is 
based.  History  furnishes  facts  for  sociology  and  becomes 
a  branch  of  the  science  when  its  facts  are  so  classified  as 
to  show  general  truths  regarding  the  action  of  men  in 
groups.  Ethics  is  largely  sociological,  but  concerns  itseK 
with  how  men  should  act  and  not  merely  with  the  laws 
governing  their  action.  The  science  of  education  consti- 
tutes one  division  of  sociology,  since  it  concerns  a  very 
important  form  of  group  activity.  There  are  number- 
less special  fields  coming  under  the  general  head  of  soci- 
ology, such  as  the  problems  of  labor  and  capital,  crime, 
poverty,  etc. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  social  phenomena. 
Men  form  groups  and  act  as  one,  partly  by  instinct  and 
partly  as  the  result  of  intelligent  deliberation  and  plan- 
ning. The  most  important  factor  in  producing  social 
phenomena  is  a  common. jiegd  that  can  best  be  met  by 
cooperative  action.  So  long  as  men  have  different  needs 
which  can  be  met  by  their  own  individual  efforts  there 
is  no  occasion  for  the  formation  of  groups  and  for 
cooperation.  If  they  have  a  common  need,  such  as  es- 
caping from  danger  or  the  securing  of  food,  each  one 
is  stimulated  instinctively  by  the  action  of  others.  But 
if  each  is  trying  in  his  own  way  to  satisfy  his  need, 


4  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

without  reference  to  the  others  and  regardless  of  any 
customary  mode  or  rule  of  behavior,  his  action  is  non- 
social.  It  is  only  when  each  performs  a  part  of  the 
complex  act  by  which  the  end  is  secured  for  all,  or  when 
there  is  some  regulation  of  activities  by  the  customs  or 
rules  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong,  that  the  action 
becomes  social  in  character. 

This  type  of  action  is  shown,  not  only  by  human 
beings  of  all  grades,  but  also  by  animals,  as  when  wolves 
hunt  in  a  pack  or  cattle  form  in  a  circle  for  defense.  If 
several  individuals  all  use  their  power  in  the  same  way 
for  a  common  end,  as  when  they  all  push  a  heavy  log  that 
is  to  be  used  for  a  boat,  we  have  cooperative  action,  but 
of  a  simpler  sort  than  when  they  do  different  things, 
some  lifting,  others  prying  or  pulling,  and  one  directing 
the  united  effort  by  signals. 

A  still  higher  type  of  cooperation  is  shown  when  some 
are  making  tools  for  moving  and  cutting  the  heavy  log. 
The  social  nature  of  their  acts  is  still  more  character- 
istic, though  less  evident,  in  the  fact  that  the  tools  have 
perhaps  been  invented  by  other  men  and  the  various 
methods  of  using  them  also  devised  and  practiced  by 
others.  In  all  phenomena  that  are  truly  social  the  actions 
of  each  individual  are  motived  and  directed,  not  by  his 
own  personal  impulses,  but  by  other  persons  present  and 
not  present,  living  and  dead. 

/  Sociology  is  especially  concerned  with  the  evolution 
of  the  more  complex  forms  of  cooperation.  In  the  tropics 
a  man  may  gather  bananas  for  himself,  and  the  act  is 
not  social  in  character.  But  in  the  temperate  regions 
a  thousand  persons  have  performed  different  parts  of 
the  complex  act  by  which  the  banana  is  brought  to  the 
breakfast  table.    Countless  thousands  have  also  con- 


INTRODUCTION  5 

tributed  to  the  existence  of  the  breakfast  table  and  to 
the  customs  associated  \\'ith  it. 

Sociology  does  not  limit  itself  to  cooperative  acts  that 
are  being  performed  by  a  group  of  people  in  the  pres- 
ence of  each  other,  but  also  concerns  itself  with  the 
origin  and  influence  of  customs  that  regulate  the  actions 
of  individuals  when  they  are  alone.  It  also  considers 
the  social  phenomena  of  institutions  such  as  corporations, 
banks,  railroads,  labor  unions,  and  governments,  that 
facilitate,  direct,  and  modify  cooperative  action. 

Nor  are  social  phenomena  limited  to  cooperative 
action.  Competitive  action  is  also  social  in  character 
when  it  is  regulated  by  sociaj^customs  or  when  it  helps 
to^lBring  about  cooperative  action.  An  ordinary  fight 
between  two  angry  men  may  not  be  a  social  phenome- 
non, but  if  they  fight  according  to  the  rules  of  the  prize 
ring  or  the  dueling  code,  or  according  to  the  ideas  and 
customs  of  the  community  in  which  they  live,  social 
phenomena  are  clearly  involved.  The  taking  of  food  by 
an  individual  is  conceivably  not  social  in  character,  but 
if  the  action  of  the  eater  is  influenced  by  the  customs 
of  the  group  to  which  he  belongs,  the  action  has  in  it 
an  element  of  the  social. 

Some  acts  are,  so  far  as  the  individual  is  concerned, 
anti-social  in  character.  Any  one  who  acts  in  opposition 
to  the  cooperative  efforts  of  others  of  his  own  group,  or 
who  takes  pains  to  act  in  opposition  to  their  customs 
and  rules,  may  be  regarded  as  anti-social  in  his  conduct. 
If,  however,  he  is  doing  this  in  the  hope  of  establishing 
better  means  of  cooperation  or  better  customs,  his  ac- 
tions are  not  strictly  anti-social,  although  they  may 
appear  to  his  companions  to  be  so. 

The  phenomena  of  sociology,  inexplicably  complex  as 


6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

they  seem,  may  be  greatly  simplified  in  thought  if  we 
regard  them  chiefly  as  modes  of  cooperative  action  by 
which  common  human  desires  are  satisfied.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  simplifying  idea  the  chief  divisions  of 
sociology  will  be  made  on  the  basis  of  ends  served. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  a  dozen  sciences  and  state  how  they  are 
related  to  sociology,  or  study  and  discuss  Compte's 
classification  and  hierarchy  of  the  sciences. 

2.  Give  not  fewer  than  three  examples  each  of  social  acts, 
of  non-social  acts,  and  of  anti-social  acts,  and  state  why 
they  are  such. 

'     3.  How  many  people  are  required  to  constitute  a  social 
;  group  ?  How  many  to  perform  a  social  act  ?  Illustrate 

and  discuss. 


CHAPTER  II 

EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION 

The  formation  of  groups.  The  long  period  of  help- 
less infancy  in  man  makes  comparatively  permanent 
groups  inevitable.  Instincts  impel  the  young  to  remain 
with  the  old  and  the  old  to  protect  and  care  for  the 
young,  hence  family  groups  form.  The  habit  of  acting 
together  tends  to  prolong  the  family  grouping  beyond 
the  period  of  necessity  and  the  requirement  of  the  in- 
stincts impelling  them  to  remain  together.  There  is 
inevitably  some  division  of  labor  in  the  family  group, 
the  father  usually  being  concerned  in  finding  food  and 
guarding  against  danger  and  the  mother  in  preparing 
food  and  caring  for  the  children. 

Families  are  rarely  found  alone,  but  associated  with 
other  families  with  whom  they  cooperate  as  occasion 
demands.   The  taibe  or^he  community,  therefore,  con- 
stitutes almost  as  fundamental  a  group  as  the  family, 
,  and  in  many  instances  there  is  little  distinction  between 
I  the  two,  the  community  or  tribe  being  simply  a  larger 
u  family,  while  the  adults  are  equally  the  protectors  of 
iall  the  children.   Various  influences  determine  the  size 
of  groups  and  lead  to  division  into  smaller  groups  or 
the  uniting  of  several  into  one. 

Geographical  influences.  The  most  fundamental  in- 
fluences determining  the  size  of  groups  and  the  degree 
of  cooperation  are  geographical  in  character.  A  rich, 
productive  valley  may  be  inhabited  by  a  large  group  of 
people  who  live  in  close  proximity,  but  cooperate  to  only 


8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

a  limited  extent.  If,  however,  they  are  attacked  by 
enemies,  a  considerable  degree  of  cooperation  may  be 
developed.  In  less  productive  and  hemmed-in  regions 
the  groups  are  likely  to  be  either  smaller  or  migratory 
in  their  habits,  for  the  country  will  not  support,  except 
for  a  short  time,  a  large  population.  The  occupations 
of  each  group,  such  as  hunting,  fishing,  herding,  agri- 
culture, are  determined  by  the  geography  of  the  region 
in  which  they  live.  Customs,  institutions,  and  relig- 
ious beliefs  are  also  greatly  influenced  by  climate  and 
occupations. 

In  the  more  primitive  stages  of  group  life  the  social 
life  of  man  is  to  a  large  extent  the  product  of  geo- 
graphical influences.  As  man  progresses  and  modifies 
this  environment,  he  becomes  more  and  more  inde- 
pendent of  geographical  influences  and  much  the  same 
type  of  civilization  may  be  found  in  every  zone. 

Influence  of  group  upon  group.  Just  as  the  indi- 
vidual is  influenced  more  by  companions  than  he  is  by 
the  natural  surroundings,  so  are  groups  of  human  be- 
ings influenced  by  other  groups.  In  primitive  life  the 
relation  of  each  group  to  other  groups  is  often  that  of 
enmity.  Where  conditions  of  life  are  easy,  groups  are 
rather  loosely  held  together  unless  they  are  threatened 
by  danger  of  attack  from  some  other  group.  In  warm 
but  comparatively  barren  regions,  small  groups  are 
likely  to  compete  with  other  groups  for  the  scanty 
means  of  subsistence.  In  frigid  regions  the  necessity 
of  cooperating  to  secure  shelter  and  the  larger  game 
results  in  group  life  without  much  competition  with 
other  groups.  In  temperate  regions,  if  there  is  a  pro- 
ductive region  near  a  comparatively  unproductive  re- 
gion, cooperation  of  the  people  of  the  productive  region 


EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION  9 

is  often  brought  about  through  raids  being  made  upon 
them  by  the  people  of  less  productive  sections.  If 
these  raids  are  made  only  at  rare  intervals,  the  co- 
operation may  be  only  temporary ;  but  if  they  occur  fre- 
quently, there  is  likely  to  be  a  more  permanent  uniting 
and  cooperating  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
richer  region. 

Where  groups  of  people  are  in  regions  furnishing 
ample  subsistence  but  of  different  kinds,  as  for  exam- 
ple, valley,  upland,  and  seashore,  where  fish  are  plen- 
tiful in  one  region,  herds  in  another,  and  fruits  and 
grain  in  another,  the  groups  of  people  inhabiting  these 
several  regions  are  more  likely  to  be  friendly  and 
exchange  their  products  with  each  other.  In  thus 
exchanging  products  each  group  exerts  an  important 
influence  upon  the  other.  They  exchange  tools,  also 
their  methods  of  working,  their  customs  and  beliefs. 
Frequently  there  is  marriage  between  the  different 
groups,  and  if  danger  threatens  all  may  unite  into  one 
larger  group. 

Where  one  group  is  at  war  with  another  group, 
it  would  seem  at  first  that  the  effect  would  be  only 
to  compel  each  to  cooperate  more  effectively,  but  this 
is  not  the  only  result.  Each  learns  of  the  weapons 
and  modes  of  warfare  of  the  others  and  is  stimulated 
to  new  inventions  to  meet  their  attacks.  War  in  all 
ages  has  thus  been  one  of  the  strongest  stimuli  to  effort 
and  to  invention.  In  addition  to  this,  prisoners  are  often 
taken,  especially  women,  who  become  wives  of  the  con- 
querors. This  inevitably  results  in  the  interchange  of 
tools,  customs,  and  beliefs  and  in  the  modification  of 
the  hereditary  characteristics  of  the  groups. 

In  the  more  primitive  conditions  of  life,  war  with 


10  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

other  groups  of  people  was  the  most  important  cause 
of  cooperation  and  of  progress ;  but  in  more  civilized 
conditions  of  life,  progress  is  more  ejffectually  promoted 
by  friendly  relations  between  the  different  nations.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  even  yet  nothing  so 
strongly  stimulates  to  cooperation  and  unity  of  action 
on  the  part  of  any  people  as  war  that  threatens  the 
destruction  of  the  group.  The  nations  whose  people 
have  learned  to  cooperate  most  effectively  are  the  ones 
that  survive. 

Likeness  and  difference  in  group  action.  A  certain, 
amount  of  similarity  is  favorable  to  group  action,  but 
not  absolute  sameness.  If  all  have  the  same  powers 
and  the  same  needs,  they  are  more  likely  to  compete 
individually  than  to  cooperate  as  a  group.  Nature  has 
provided  certain  fundamental  differences  in  the  mem- 
bers of  all  permanent  groups  of  human  beings.  There 
are  adult  men,  adult  women,  and  children,  who  are 
more  or  less  helpless.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
also  always  some  old  or  infirm  persons. 

Besides  these  primary  and  fundamental  differences 
in  individuals  composing  a  permanent  group  there  are 
also  differences  in  general  and  special  abihty.  At  least 
three  grades  of  general  ability  are  to  be  found  in  every 
community,  medium,  superior,  and  inferior,  while  the 
varieties  of  special  ability — manual,  intellectual,  artis- 
tic, etc.  —  are  numberless. 

Cooperative  action  is  effective  in  proportion  as  there 
is  a  common  need  and  as  each  individual  performs  the 
part  for  which  he  is  best  fitted  in  the  complex  process 
by  which  the  need  is  met ;  hence  there  is  much  speciali- 
zation of  abilities.  The  higher  the  stage  of  civilization 
reached,  the  more  complex  the  process  and  the  greater 


EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION  11 

the  specialization  of  the  individuals  cooperating  in  in- 
dustrial and  intellectual  lines. 

Leaders.  The  most  important  persons  in  every 
group  are  those  of  superior  ability  who  act  as  leaders. 
In  more  primitive  conditions  of  life,  the  leader  is 
quicker,  stronger,  and  usually  more  intelligent  than 
other  members  of  the  group.  He  is  the  first  to  sense 
dangrer  and  the  first  to  learn  how  to  meet  or  avoid  it. 
His  actions  influence  others  and  they  join  him  in  escap- 
ing or  fighting.  In  providing  for  the  necessities  of  food 
and  shelter,  the  leader  is  the  first  to  perceive  what  needs 
to  be  done  and  to  suggest  the  line  of  action  to  be  pur- 
sued. Besides  being  quick  to  perceive  and  to  act,  the 
leader  is  one  who  has  the  ability  to  impress  others  and 
to  cause  them  to  imitate  or  obey  him. 

Among  savage  people  the  leader  is  often  a  hunter  or 
a  warrior.  If  he  is  successful  the  group  derives  great 
advantage  from  his  leadership  and  is  likely  to  submit 
to  him  at  other  times  and  in  other  matters  than  those 
of  war  and  the  chase.  Throughout  all  history  the  war- 
rior leader  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence,  not  only 
during  the  war,  but  also  in  times  of  peace.  Note,  for 
example,  how  many  of  the  warrior  leaders  in  the  United 
States  have  been  elected  to  fill  civil  offices. 

Among  all  primitive  people,  where  there  is  not  a 
continuous  state  of  war,  there  is  another  type  of  leader 
whose  influence  is  equally  powerful.  He  is  known 
variously  as  a  medicine  man,  shaman,  or  priest.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  especially  powerful  in  guarding  against 
dangers  whose  source  and  nature  are  unknown.  He 
professes  to  be  able  to  cure  diseases,  to  provide  means 
of  avoiding  accident,  to  bring  rain,  and  to  cause  crops 
to  grow,  and  in  general  to  secure  the  help  and  favor  of 


12  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

the  powers  of  nature  and  the  spirits  of  the  air.  Shrewd- 
ness especially  in  managing  people  is  as  necessary  a 
part  of  his  outfit  as  is  physical  ability  in  the  case  of  a 
primitive  war  leader.  He  becomes  especially  powerful 
through  fostering  superstitions  and  religious  beliefs. 
He  performs  elaborate  ceremonies  to  impress  the 
people.  To  maintain  his  place  he  must  be  acute  in 
perceiving  what  is  likely  to  happen  and  so  perform  his 
ceremonies  that  it  will  seem  as  though  they  were  the 
cause  of  what  takes  place.  Sometimes  the  medicine 
man  or  shaman  acts  in  opposition  to  the  hunter  or 
warrior  leader  and  sometimes  in  harmony  with  him. 
He  is  frequently  consulted  as  to  when  and  where  to 
hunt  or  go  to  war  and  how  to  obtain  success.  Occa- 
sionally a  leader  successfully  combines  the  two  roles  of 
warrior  and  medicine  man. 

Until  comparatively  recent  times  these  two  types  of 
leaders  have  played  a  large  part  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  At  the  present  time  civil,  industrial,  artistic, 
and  scientific  leaders  are  taking  a  more  and  more 
prominent  place  in  stimulating  and  directing  group 
action. 

Effect  of  leaders  on  customs  and  classes.  The  effects 
of  leadership  are  not  confined  to  the  actions  performed 
under  the  direction  of  a  leader,  but  continue  long  after 
he  has  passed  away.  All  who,  under  the  direction  of  a 
leader,  have  acted  in  a  certain  way  develop  a  tendency 
to  act  in  similar  ways  under  similar  circumstances.  The 
younger  generation  inevitably  follows  the  example  of 
its  elders  and  the  modes  of  action  originated  by  the 
leader  become  more  and  more  firmly  established  as  cus- 
toms. Any  tendency  to  vary  from  these  customs,  if  not 
prevented  by  the  mere  force  of  habit,  is  often  thwarted 


EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION  13 

by  a  recital  of  what  was  accomplished  by  the  great 
leader.  In  many  instances  he  is  more  or  less  deified  and 
his  influence  is  more  powerful  after  he  is  dead  than 
while  he  was  living. 

Custom  in  a  broad  sense  may  include  not  only  the 
usual  objective  actions  of  a  group  of  peopld^  but  also 
the  habits  of  thought  and  feeling  transmitted  from  one 
generation  to  another  which  govern  their  more  con- 
scious judgments  and  sentiments.  Sometimes  the  term 
"  folkways  "  or  "  mores  "  is  used  to  designate  customs 
in  the  broader,  deeper  sense  of  the  word.  In  this  sense, 
mores  govern  the  modes  of  thinking  and  determine  sen- 
timents and  ideals  as  well  as  the  habitual  acts  of  every 
race.  They  are  the  source  of  its  proverbs  and  of  its 
moral  and  religious  regulations. 

Changes  in  conditions  may  make  modifications  in 
customs  advantageous,  but  unless  a  new  leader  arises 
who  sees  this  and  is  able  to  impress  his  followers  with 
the  desirability  of  change,  customs  once  established  will 
continue  with  only  slight  modifications.  As  people  be- 
come more  civilized,  reason,  in  part,  takes  the  place  of . 
custom,  and  then  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  bring  about 
changes.  This  is  especially  true  when  a  group  of  people 
is  brought  into  contact  with  people  having  different 
customs  of  which  they  can  see  the  advantages. 

Closely  associated  with  the  influence  of  leaders  upon 
custom  is  the  effect  of  their  leadership  in  producing  a 
division  of  the  people  into  more  or  less  artificial  classes 
according  to  their  relationship  to  him.  The  successful 
warrior  leader  becomes  the  governor  of  the  people  in 
times  of  peace  because  of  his  personal  power  and  the 
service  he  has  rendered.  Nothing  is  too  good  for  the 
king.  He  has  special  privileges  and  he  is  subject  to 


14  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

none  of  the  regulations  imposed  upon  the  rest  of  the 
people. 

Members  of  his  family  and  those  who  have  served  as 
officers  under  him  are  likely  to  be  given  some  of  the 
same  honors  and  immunities.  Those  who  have  served 
him  as  warriors  take  a  somewhat  lower  place,  but  one 
distinctly  above  the  common  people.  Sometimes  those 
who  have  engaged  in  occupations  conspicuously  helpful 
to  him  acquire  a  position  higher  than  their  fellows, 
while  those  who  have  been  captured  in  war  and  become 
slaves  of  his  own  or  of  his  noblemen  are  in  the  lowest 
class.  In  case  he  is  occupying  a  conquered  country,  the 
people  he  has  conquered  occupy  a  lower  place  than  those 
of  his  own  group.  Thus  have  leaders  been  the  cause  of 
artificial  class  distinctions  in  all  nations. 

As  people  become  more  intelligent  and  less  subject 
to  the  influence  of  custom  and  tradition,  these  artificial 
social  distinctions  between  classes  of  people  slowly  but 
gradually  disappear.  At  the  present  time  most  of  the 
kings  of  the  earth  have  little  arbitrary  authority  and 
they  are  expected  to  conform  to  the  ordinary  rules  of 
morality.  Kecently  division  into  classes  has  come  to 
be  based  more  upon  wealth  and  occupation  than  upon 
birth  and  tradition  and  the  classes  are  therefore  less 
fixed. 

Products  of  group  action.  The  products  of  social 
action  are  of  two  types,  material  and  immaterial,  yet 
each  has  in  it  elements  of  the  other  type.  The  material 
products  are  tools,  weapons,  utensils,  clothing,  houses, 
roads,  machines,  cultivated  fields,  etc.  The  immaterial 
products  are  customs,  languages,  institutions,  laws, 
knowledge. 

Although  a  tool  is  classed  as  a  material  product,  yet 


EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION  15 

skill  and  knowledge  have  gone  into  its  manufacture, 
and  the  tool  or  machine  is  something  more  than  the 
material  of  which  it  is  composed.  Also,  without  skill 
and  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  attempts  to 
use  it,  the  tool  is  worthless.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
immaterial  thing,  knowledge,  is  useful  only  to  him  who 
possesses  it.  To  be  useful  to  future  generations  it  must 
be  expressed  in  some  material  form,  such  as  books  or 
tablets.  Art  is  an  immaterial  social  product,  but  with 
the  exception  of  music  it  must  be  embodied  in  a  mate- 
rial form. 

Customs  are  a  universal  product  of  group  action. 
Every  member  of  the  group  is  directed  and  bound  by 
them,  and  each  new  member  comes  under  their  sway 
unless  he  is  endowed  with  unusual  qualities  of  force  and 
initiative.  Customs  once  started  go  on  forever  except 
as  modified  by  contact  with  other  customs,  the  exist- 
ence of  new  conditions,  and  the  influence  of  a  powerful 
leader. 

Of  all  products  of  group  action,  institutions  are  most 
characteristic  and  most  important.  Little  or  no  intelli- 
gence is  necessary  to  start  and  follow  customs,  but  an 
institution  requires  a  certain  amount  of  intelligent 
planning.  Some  one  must  see  the  need  for  doing  a 
certain  thing,  and  must  plan  the  mode  of  doing  it  which 
can  be  carried  out  by  successive  individuals  acting  in 
certain  ways. 

Just  as  a  tool  is  a  material  social  invention,  so  is 
an  institution  an  immaterial  social  invention.  Some  of 
the  simpler  tools  are  the  product  of  chance  experience 
rather  than  of  intelligent  planning,  and  in  a  similar  way 
some  institutions  —  such,  for  instance,  as  that  of  mar- 
riage and  of  government  —  have  become  institutions 


16  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

through  a  combination  of  customs.  Most  institutions, 
however,  are  largely  originated  and  perpetuated  by  con- 
scious planning  on  the  part  of  some  one. 
^  A  machine  is  the  material  embodiment  of  a  great 

deal  of  intelligence  and  skill  and  an  institution  is  an 
immaterial  embodiment  of  wisdom  and  experience.  For 
example,  such  an  institution  as  a  successful  insurance 
company  is  the  product  of  the  experience  and  intelli- 
gence of  thousands  of  persons.  This  intelligence  is  rep- 
resented chiefly  in  the  plans  and  rules  that  must  be 
followed  in  organizing  and  running  such  an  institution. 
These  having  been  worked  out,  the  amount  of  intelli- 
gence required  on  the  part  of  those  who  conduct  the 
institution  is  not  very  great  so  long  as  conditions  re- 
main the  same  and  the  rules  work  as  they  have  done. 
Men  may  make  mistakes  and  will  surely  die,  but  an  in- 
stitution conducted  according  to  rules  makes  few  mis- 
takes in  its  fundamental  operation  and  it  may  go  on 
for  ever.  For  example,  national  banks  cannot  now  fail 
if  conducted  according  to  law. 

In  the  ultimate  analysis,  knowledge  is  probably  the 
highest  social  product,  but  it  is  least  self-perpetuating. 
Customs  and  institutions  are  group  affairs,  but  knowl- 
edge belongs  to  the  individual,  and  to  survive  must 
be  imparted  to  successive  generations  of  individuals. 
When  embodied  in  the  form  of  written  language  or  in 
the  working  of  institutions,  it  may  be  perpetuated  for 
untold  generations.  In  order  to  be  useful  the  language 
in  which  it  is  embodied  must,  however,  be  understood, 
and  there  must  be  a  basis  of  individual  experience  for 
comprehending  the  thoughts  expressed.  Customs,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  followed  without  thought  or  effort,  and 
different  phases  of  institutional  activity  may  be  learned 


EVOLUTION  OF  GROUP  ACTION  17 

without  an  understanding  of  the  wisdom  involved  in  the 
organization  and  rules  of  the  institution. 

A  group  of  people  who  possess  knowledge  may  con- 
struct tools  and  machines,  initiate  customs,  and  organ- 
ize institutions.  Hence  knowledge  is  not  merely  a  prod- 
uct in  itself,  but  it  is  a  means  of  reproducing  every 
other  social  product  that  may  have  been  destroyed  and 
a  guide  in  forming  new  ones.  Art  is  an  important  social 
product,  but  artistic  ability  and  appreciation  are  not  so 
readUy  transferred  from  one  individual  to  another  as 
is  knowledge.  The  designer  of  a  bridge  may  leave  rec- 
ords that  will  make  possible  the  designing  of  other 
bridges,  but  the  originator  of  a  work  of  art  cannot  for- 
mulate directions  that  others  can  utilize  in  painting  pic- 
tures or  writing  poems.  For  example,  Poe  has  told  us 
how  to  construct  a  poem  like  "The  Raven,"  but  none 
but  a  genius  can  foUow  those  directions  successfully. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Give  facts  showing  how  physical  characteristics,  mental 
characteristics,  customs,  laws,  and  institutions  are  af- 
fected by  geographical  influences. 

2.  Describe  groups  of  people  who  travel  from  place  to 
place  at  different  times  of  the  year. 

3.  Describe  instances  of  migration  and  immigration  and 
discuss  causes. 

4.  Give  facts  showing  how  trade  between  two  groups  of 
people  influences  them. 

5.  Give  ancient  and  modern  illustrations  of  the  effects  of 
war  upon  cooperative  action. 

6.  Show  how  variety  in  ability  and  special  skill  makes 
effective  cooperation  possible  in  a  community  or  in  any 
group  of  people. 


18  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

7.  Show  the  necessity  of  some  likeness  in  a  cooperating 
group. 

8.  Describe  the  characteristics  of  leaders  with  whom  you 
are  familiar  in  relation  to  those  they  lead. 

9.  Give  reasons  for  and  against  the  view  that  all  advances 
in  civilization  have  been  due  chiefly  to  leaders. 

10.  Do  leaders  ever  interfere  with  advance  ?  How  ? 

11.  What  types  of  leadership  are  most  prominent  to-day  in 
school,  community,  nation,  and  the  world  ? 

12.  Name  the  most  distinct  classes  of  people  to-day  in  your 
community. 

13.  Give  illustrations  of  the  persistence  and  strength  of 
customs. 

14.  Report  on  the  development  of  customs  in  some  schools 
or  societies  showing  the  part  leaders  have  had  in  orig- 
inating and  changing  customs. 

15.  A  simple  subject  of  investigation  would  be  to  determine 
why  in  this  country  dinner  is  in  some  communities  at 
noon  and  in  others  at  night,  especially  if  there  have 
been  recent  changes. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT 

Man's  chief  means  of  survival.  Since  sociology  is 
concerned  with  the  life  of  man,  as  well  as  with  his  group 
activities,  his  place  in  the  world  of  living  things  and 
his  relation  to  plants  and  animals  must  be  considered. 
Man  is  only  one  of  the  many  species  of  animals  strug- 
gling for  existence  and  for  more  extensive  and  complete 
living.  In  general  he  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  of  life, 
growth,  and  evolution  as  are  other  animals.  Like  many 
other  animals  he  is  found  in  groups  and  this  group  life 
is  one  of  the  means  enabling  him  to  survive  as  a  species. 
His  social  instincts  and  his  intelligence  make  it  possible 
for  him  to  cooperate  and  thus  to  get  more  benefit  from 
group  life  than  can  almost  any  other  animal. 

He  has  gained  the  supremacy  in  the  contest  with 
larger  animals  through  skill  of  hand,  intelligence,  and 
efficient  group  activity.  He  is  distinguished  from  all 
other  animals  by  the  fact  that  he  greatly  modifies  his 
environment,  while  they  in  general  simply  adapt  them- 
selves to  it.  The  principal  characteristic  giving  him  his 
place  at  the  head  of  animal  life  is  that  of  intelligence. 
This  serves  him  instead  of  natural  weapons,  strength, 
or  speed.  He  is  able  to  fashion  for  himself  weapons  and 
tools  by  means  of  which  he  may  conquer  other  animals 
and  make  such  changes  in  his  environment  as  will  give 
him  food,  shelter,  and  protection  from  danger.  This 
is  especially  true  of  civilized  man.  It  is  because  of 
intelligence  that  this  country  supports  to-day  a  hundred 


20  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

million  people  where  three  centuries  ago  a  few  hundred 
thousand  savages  were  unable  to  keep  themselves  con- 
tinuously supplied  with  food. 

Balance  of  nature.  In  the  struggle  for  existence 
each  species  of  plant  and  animal  survives  because  of  its 
relation  to  other  species  and  to  the  conditions  of  the 
region.  In  any  portion  of  the  world  where  conditions 
have  remained  nearly  the  same  for  ages,  there  is  a  fairly 
well-established  balance  in  nature.  Increase  of  the  food 
of  a  given  species  may  temporarily  increase  its  numbers, 
but  this  in  turn  gives  a  chance  for  its  enemies  who  prey 
upon  it  to  increase  and  thus  the  balance  is  restored. 

These  two  facts,  that  there  is  a  balance  in  nature 
and  that  man  makes  important  changes  in  his  environ- 
ment, have  very  important  results.  As  long  as  climatic 
conditions  remain  practically  the  same  for  ages,  there 
will  be  little  change  in  the  plant  and  animal  life  of  a 
region.  A  few  years  that  are  especially  favorable  for 
one  species  may  cause  a  great  increase  in  the  numbers 
of  that  species.  This  increase  will  not,  however,  be  per- 
manent, for  any  species  that  feeds  upon  the  one  that  is 
increased  will  have  a  much  better  chance  and  will  also 
increase  to  such  an  extent  that  the  other  will  be  dimin- 
ished. If  the  number  of  this  second  species  becomes 
great,  their  food  supply  becomes  inadequate,  and  they 
in  turn  will  be  diminished  to  a  point  where  the  first 
may  again  increase.  Such  compensating  relations  exist 
between  all  the  species  of  plants  and  animals  in  a  given 
region,  so  that  the  balance,  which  is  continually  being 
temporarily  disturbed,  is  automatically  restored. 

Man  makes  great  changes  in  the  life  of  the  regions 
that  he  inhabits.  First,  he  moves  plants  or  animals  to 
new  environments,  where  if  their  usual  enemies  are  not 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    21 

present  they  multiply  enormously,  as  in  the  case  of 
rabbits  taken  to  Australia  and  English  sparrows  and 
brown-tail  moths  to  New  England.  Second,  he  destroys 
some  species  and  increases  the  number  of  others,  as 
when  forests  are  felled  and  corn  is  planted,  or  when 
wolves  are  destroyed  and  cattle  bred.  Third,  he  changes 
the  characteristics  of  plants  and  animals  by  breeding 
and  selection. 

Whenever  such  changes  are  made,  fresh  difficulties 
are  always  met.  If  extensive  regions  are  planted  with 
one  kind  of  crop,  the  insects  that  feed  upon  that  crop 
multiply  enormously,  and  since  they  are  artificially  fed 
by  man,  they  must  be  artificially  destroyed  by  him  or 
the  crop  will  fail.  In  breeding  plants  and  animals  to 
make  prominent  characteristics  that  are  desirable  to 
him,  man  produces  varieties  less  hardy  than  those  found 
in  nature.  Hence  he  must  combat  the  weeds  that  would 
destroy  his  crops  and  must  guard  his  pure-blooded 
animals  against  injury  and  disease. 

Among  the  chief  factors  that  determine  the  amount 
of  life  on  any  portion  of  the  earth  are  heat  and  mois- 
ture. Man,  standing  at  the  head  of  living  things,  and 
dependent  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  amoimt  of 
plant  and  animal  food  produced  on  the  earth,  cannot 
increase  in  numbers  beyond  the  limits  of  subsistence 
that  the  earth  affords.  On  some  portions  of  the  earth 
where  there  is  little  heat  and  on  others  where  there  is 
little  or  no  moisture,  the  earth  will  perhaps  support  not 
one  person  to  the  square  mile,  while,  where  both  heat 
and  moisture  are  abundant  and  the  soil  favorable,  hun- 
dreds may  live  in  luxury.  Except  in  a  very  few  favored 
tropical  regions,  however,  only  a  few  persons  can  ob- 
tain a  living  on  a  mile  of  territory  that  has  not  been 


22  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

modified  by  man.  By  working  the  soil,  planting  the 
right  crops  and  taking  proper  care  of  them  several 
persons  are  able  to  get  a  living  from  a  single  acre  of 
ground. 

The  law  of  diminishing  returns.  Such  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  amount  of  food  produced  on  an  acre  of 
land  is  possible  that  it  may  seem  as  if  there  were  no 
limit  to  such  increase.  It  may  be  that  there  is  no  abso- 
lute limit,  but  it  is  found  that  the  amount  of  increase 
of  product  in  relation  to  the  labor  expended  does  soon 
reach  a  limit.  By  proper  planting,  fertilization,  and 
cultivation  the  amount  produced  on  an  acre  may  be 
doubled  or  quadrupled.  A  further  doubling  of  fertilizer 
and  of  intensive  cultivation  will  almost  surely  not  result 
in  doubling  the  crop.  On  the  contrary,  too  much  fertil- 
izer will  diminish  the  amount  produced,  and  an  increase 
in  the  work  expended  in  preparing  the  soil  and  culti- 
vating the  crop  will  not  produce  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  product.  It  is  not  possible,  therefore,  for  the 
people  living  in  any  region  to  increase  indefinitely  the 
food  products.  There  is  always  a  point  reached  beyond 
which  an  increase  in  labor  expended  does  not  result  in 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  product.  This  is  known 
as  the  law  of  diminishing  returns. 

Ability  and  readiness  in  learning  may  temporarily 
obscure  this  law,  as  when  a  better  selection  of  seed  gives 
a  larger  crop  without  any  increased  effort,  or  a  more 
suitable  kind  of  fertilizer  or  method  of  handling  the  crop 
increases  the  production ;  but  whatever  means  are  used 
a  limit  is  reached  in  the  amount  that  may  be  produced 
in  a  given  region  until  new  discoveries  are  made.  A 
further  effort  to  increase  the  product  will  then  result  in 
smaller  and  smaller  increase.  This  law  of  diminishing 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    23 

returns  holds  for  every  form  of  agriculture,  including 
stock-raising. 

It  also  applies  to  mining.  Tlirough  the  use  of  ma- 
chinery and  the  most  effective  specialization  and  organ- 
ization of  labor,  the  amount  of  coal  or  ore  taken  from 
the  mine  may  be  greatly  increased,  but  when  the  pos- 
sibilities of  improvement  in  this  direction  are  reached 
and  the  coal  or  ore  must  be  brought  from  greater  depths 
or  from  thinner  veins,  the  amount  obtained  for  a  given 
amount  of  labor  becomes  less  and  less. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  although  the  earth,  in  re- 
spouse  to  intelligent  effort,  will  for  a  while  yield  richer 
returns  for  the  labor  expended,  yet  there  is  a  tendency 
for  these  returns  to  become  proportionally  less.  By  in- 
vention and  discovery  man  may  combat  this  law  and 
continue  to  increase  the  earth's  products,  but  whenever 
he  ceases  to  find  new  and  more  effective  means  of  agri- 
culture and  mining  the  law  of  diminishing  returns  is 
sure  to  begin  to  work. 

In  the  case  of  manufacturing  the  conditions  seem  to 
be  somewhat  different.  Increase  in  the  size  of  a  manu- 
facturing establishment  makes  possible  the  employment 
of  more  efficient  machines  and  methods,  and  more  and 
more  is  produced  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  labor 
expended.  There  scarcely  seems  to  be  a  limit  beyond 
which  increase  in  the  amount  produced  will  result  in 
greater  cost  of  production,  providing  the  articles  pro- 
duced are  all  alike.  The  only  way  in  which  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns  can  affect  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries is  indirectly,  through  a  diminution  in  the  raw 
materials  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  ex- 
pended in  getting  them  from  the  earth,  or  through  in- 
creasing transportation  costs. 


24  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

This  will  probably  be  shown  first  iu  the  diminishing 
supply  of  lumber  and  of  coal,  but  this  is  being  met  in 
part  by  the  discovery  and  utilization  of  means  by  which 
wind,  water,  and  other  forces  of  nature  are  made  to  do 
the  work  of  manufacturing. 

The  law  of  Malthus.  About  a  century  ago  a  noted 
thinker  named  Malthus,  after  considering  some  of  the 
facts  just  mentioned,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  there 
is  an  inevitable  tendency  for  the  population  in  every 
portion  of  the  earth  to  increase  and  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence to  become  relatively  small.  He  held  that,  since 
the  product  did  not  increase  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  amount  of  labor  expended,  a  time  would  come 
when  the  labor  of.  the  increased  number  of  human  beings 
would  not  furnish  them  enough  food  to  maintain  life. 
So  far  as  the  facts  then  known  are  concerned  his  con- 
clusions seem  justified.  So  many  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries have  been  made,  however,  that  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time  the  means  of  subsistence  are  greater  rather 
than  less  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  people  and  to 
the  amount  of  labor  expended.  People  now  work  fewer 
hours  and  have  more  of  the  necessities  and  luxuries  of 
life  than  was  the  case  when  Malthus  lived.  This  has 
been  made  possible,  however,  not  wholly  by  increase  of 
productiveness  in  the  thickly  inhabited  regions,  but  by 
the  development  of  the  earth's  resources  in  other  places 
which  are  now  easily  drawn  upon  by  our  improved 
means  of  transportation.  If,  however,  the  population 
of  the  earth  shall  continue  to  increase  as  Malthus  esti- 
mated that  it  would,  there  will  surely  come  a  time, 
unless  discoveries  and  inventions  greatly  alter  the  situa- 
tion, when  the  means  of  subsistence  will  not  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  labor  expended. 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    25 

Growth  of  population.  The  increase  in  population 
has  proved  to  be  much  less  than  that  anticipated  by 
Malthus.  Although  human  beings  increase  much  less 
rapidly  than  other  animals,  the  rate  biologically  pos- 
sible is  very  great.  Four  or  five  generations  may  be 
produced  in  a  century  and  each  woman  may  bear  twelve 
children.  Other  influences  make  the  increase  much  less 
than  this.  Marriage  is  frequently  delayed,  thus  decreas- 
ing the  size  of  the  family  and  the  number  of  genera- 
tions produced  in  a  century.  There  are  also  many 
women  who  never  marry  and  a  large  number  of  those 
who  do  are  barren.  Since  the  time  of  Malthus  the  in- 
crease in  population  has  been  lessened  in  other  ways. 
In  all  civilized  countries  there  has  been  a  very  consid- 
erable decrease  in  the  size  of  families. 

This  is  partly  balanced  by  decrease  in  the  death-rate, 
especially  of  infants.  In  France  the  birth-  and  death- 
rate  have  been  nearly  equal  for  several  decades,  and  as 
there  has  been  little  migration  to  and  from  that  coun- 
try, the  population  has  remained  almost  stationary.  In 
other  countries  the  birth-rate  is  still  in  excess  of  the 
death-rate,  but  statistics  show  that  while  both  are  de- 
creasing the  birth-rate  is  decreasing  more  rapidly.  If 
this  continues  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the 
population  of  the  earth  will  be  stationary  or  decreasing. 
If  this  should  happen  and  the  inventiveness  of  man 
continue  as  it  has  for  the  last  hundred  years,  it  will  be 
possible  for  the  law  of  diminishing  returns  to  be  more 
than  neutralized,  subsistence  increasing  more  rapidly 
than  population  and  more  necessities  and  luxuries  be- 
ing obtained  by  fewer  hours  of  labor. 

Evolution  of  human  characteristics.  Some  animals 
survive  by  their  great  productiveness,  others  by  their 


26  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

strength,  swiftness,  or  ability  to  live  under  hard  condi- 
tions. Man's  chief  means  of  survival  and  of  supremacy 
over  other  animals  lie  in  intelligence  which  enables  him 
to  modify  and  utilize  the  things  in  his  environment  and 
the  forces  of  nature  for  his  own  ends.  In  most  species 
of  animals  there  is  a  struggle  for  existence,  not  only 
with  other  species,  but  among  the  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  and  those  survive  who  are  best  fitted  to 
the  conditions  of  life.  This  is  less  true  of  man  than  of 
other  animals  and  still  less  true  the  more  civilized  he 
becomes.  Men  cooperate  more  than  they  compete. 
Various  kinds  of  ability  are  thus  utilized  and  the  weak 
are  protected  and  supported  by  the  strong. 

At  the  present  time  the  struggle  among  human  be- 
ings is  to  only  a  slight  extent  for  survival,  but  chiefly 
for  position.  Very  few  die  for  the  want  of  food  or 
shelter.  The  general  biological  law  affecting  survival 
is,  therefore,  in  the  case  of  the  human  species,  consid- 
erably modified  by  what  is  sometimes  called  counter- 
selection.  Intelligence  was  never  so  important  a  factor 
in  the  life  of  man  as  it  is  to-day,  but  intelligence  deter- 
mines not  so  much  who  shall  live  as  who  shall  take  a 
prominent  place.  The  intellectual  achievements  of 
men  are  due  to  their  intellectual  capacity,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  the  opportunities  they  have  of  acquiring 
and  making  use  of  the  intellectual  products  of  past 
generations. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  intellectual  capacity 
of  man  is  any  greater  than  it  was  several  thousand 
years  ago,  and  there  are  probably  biological  reasons 
why  it  will  not  greatly  increase  in  the  future.  Intel- 
lectual capacity  depends  upon  the  size  and  structure 
of  the  nervous  system,  especially  of  the  brain.   A  large 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    27 

brain  means  a  large  head,  and  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  children  with  excessively  large  heads  are  generally 
stillborn.  If  it  be  supposed  that  there  may  be  a  tend- 
ency to  a  greater  growth  of  head  after  birth,  then  we 
must  recognize  certain  laws  of  physical  balance  in  the 
organism  which  would  make  the  development  of  human 
beings  with  excessively  large  heads  impossible.  If 
the  nervous  system  were  disproportionately  prominent, 
health  could  not  be  maintained  and  the  individual 
would  die  or  the  activity  of  the  brain  would  be  inter- 
fered with.  From  the  biological  point  of  view,  although 
it  may  be  possible,  it  is  certainly  not  probable,  that 
there  will  be  any  very  great  increase  in  the  intellectual 
capacity  of  the  human  being.  The  so-called  super-man 
will  probably  never  appear. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  there  will  be  no 
further  change  in  the  intellectual  characteristics  of 
men.  When  we  observe  what  has  been  accomplished 
in  the  breeding  of  animals  we  are  Impressed  with  the 
fact  that  although  no  super-horse,  cow,  dog,  or  hen 
has  been  produced,  yet  that  there  has  been  great  spe- 
cialization of  characteristics.  We  have  the  trotting 
horse,  the  running  horse,  and  the  draft  horse,  the  milch 
cow  and  the  beef  cow,  and  scores  of  varieties  of  dogs 
excelling  in  one  or  another  characteristic.  In  a  similar 
way  it  would  undoubtedly  be  possible  to  develop  spe- 
cialized varieties  of  human  beings  —  mathematicians, 
musicians,  artists,  scientists,  philosophers,  men  of  great 
executive  ability,  etc.  Theoretically  this  is  undoubtedly 
possible,  but  practically  the  possibilities  are  not  likely 
to  be  very  fully  realized.  In  such  countries  as  India, 
where  the  caste  system  has  prevailed  for  many  cen- 
turies, and  where  there  is  almost  no  marrying  outside 


28  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

of  one*s  caste,  there  has  been  a  development  of  rather 
distinct  varieties  of  human  beings.  In  other  countries 
there  is  something  of  a  tendency  for  persons  of  the 
same  mental  characteristics  to  become  acquainted  with 
each  other  and  to  marry,  but  unless  mating  is  controlled 
by  authority  and  custom  more  completely  than  it  ever 
has  been,  it  is  not  likely  that  very  highly  specialized 
varieties  of  human  beings  will  be  developed. 

Eugenics.  There  has  been  much  talk  recently  of 
possible  improvements  in  the  human  race.  The  above 
considerations  indicate  that  much  improvement  in  gen- 
eral intelligence  is  scarcely  possible  and  that  specializa- 
tion of  intelligence  is  not  probable  unless  very  impor- 
tant and  undemocratic  changes  in  our  social  regulations 
be  made.  There  is  still,  however,  a  possibility  of  im- 
provement, chiefly  in  a  negative  way.  When  the 
different  classes  of  people  are  studied  it  is  found  that 
some  are  increasing  in  numbers  much  more  rapidly 
than  others.  It  seems  as  if  intelligence  itself  were  lim- 
iting the  development  of  intelligence  in  man  as  a 
species,  for  the  birth-rate  is  smallest  among  the  most 
intelligent  and  greatest  among  the  unintelligent  and 
feeble-minded. 

This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  those  who  attain  in- 
tellectual prominence  must  defer  marriage  until  a  later 
age.  This  results  in  smaller  families  and  fewer  gener- 
ations to  the  century.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is 
clear  evidence  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  more  in- 
telligent classes  are  voluntarily  limiting  the  size  of 
their  families.  If  everybody  married  and  all  the  chil- 
dren born  lived  to  maturity,  it  would  be  necessary,  in 
order  to  maintain  population,  that  there  should  be  two 
children  in  each  family.    Since  many  children  die  and 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    29 

some  individuals  do  not  marry  or  produce  any  chil- 
dren, the  number  of  children  in  each  family  must  aver- 
age between  three  and  four  in  order  that  population 
may  not  decrease.  Statistics  of  the  families  of  college 
graduates  show  that  the  size  of  their  families  ranges 
on  the  average  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  found  that  the  average  family 
of  common  laborers  is  considerably  above  that  neces- 
sary to  maintain  population,  while  the  birth-rate  among 
the  feeble-minded  is  stiU  greater.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  at  the  present  time  there  are  strong  influ- 
ences tending  to  increase  the  numbers  of  the  unintelli- 
gent portion  of  the  population  far  more  rapidly  than 
of  the  intelligent. 

This  is  partly  counteracted  by  the  extensive  inter- 
marriage of  peoples  of  various  grades  of  intelligence 
and  also  by  the  fact  that  the  classification  of  people  as 
unintelligent  or  intelligent  according  to  the  position 
they  occupy  in  society  is  not  at  all  reliable.  The  com- 
mon laborer  may  have  as  much  intellectual  capacity  as 
the  doctor  or  lawyer,  and  his  son,  when  given  proper 
opportunities,  may  show  intellectual  capacity  equal  to 
that  of  the  son  of  the  professional  man.  StiU  the  fact 
remains  that  human  beings  of  the  lower  types,  espe- 
cially of  the  feeble-minded  variety,  are  numerous,  and 
their  numbers  are  increasing  more  rapidly  than  are 
those  of  a  higher  type.  The  most  obvious  thing  to  be 
done,  therefore,  by  those  interested  in  eugenics,  is  to 
de\ase  means  for  preventing  the  production  of  the 
unfit  and  to  make  conditions  more  favorable  for  in- 
creased productiveness  of  the  fit. 

The  best  means  known  at  present  of  preventing  the 
increase  of  the  unfit,  especially  of  the  feeble-minded,  is 


30  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

custodial  care  during  the  child-producing  period.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  feeble-minded  number  between  one 
and  two  per  cent  of  the  total  population  and  that 
nearly  three  fourths  of  all  cases  of  feeble-mindedness 
are  hereditary.  If,  therefore,  all  feeble-minded  persons 
now  living  were  prevented  from  producing  children, 
feeble-mindedness  would  be  reduced  by  more  than  one 
half  in  a  single  generation.  Further  study  of  the  laws 
of  heredity  and  of  what  affects  development  before  and 
after  birth,  in  particular  the  influence  of  drugs  and 
diseases,  would  make  it  possible  still  further  to  de- 
crease the  production  of  the  unfit,  not  only  those  that 
are  feeble-minded,  but  those  that  are  defective  in  other 
ways  or  who  have  a  tendency  to  insanity. 

On  the  positive  side,  those  interested  in  eugenics 
may  do  most  by  a  campaign  of  education  which  will 
develop  an  interest  and  pride  in  the  production  of 
healthy  and  intelligent  children,  and  give  increased 
knowledge  of  how  this  may  be  done.  Probably  some- 
thing may  be  gained  by  making  economic  conditions 
more  favorable  for  those  who  are  likely  to  produce  and 
care  for  such  childi-en. 

^Jipther  side  of  the  problem  of  producing  a  higher 
type  qf  human  beings  is  concerned  with  making  the 
physical,  social,  and  mental  conditions  favorable  to  the 
development  of  the  best  inherited  capacity  of  each  in- 
dividual. This  method  of  improving  the  human  race, 
not  through  heredity,  but  through  favorable  surround- 
ings, has  been  named  euthenics.  Its  problems,  as  we 
shall  see  later,  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  education. 


BIOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  HUMAN  DEVELOPMENT    31 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  examples  of  social  animals  and  how  they  help  each 
other  to  survive  when  living  in  groups. 

2.  Give  several  striking  examples  of  how  man  has  modi- 
fied his  environment. 

3.  Give  examples  showing  how  one  species  is  limited  in  its 
development  hy  other  plants  or  animals. 

4.  Study  density  of  population  in  the  United  States  in  re- 
lation to  rainfall. 

5.  Give  examples  in  detail  of  the  working  of  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns  in  farming  and  in  mining. 

6.  Report  on  the  theory  and  arguments  of  Malthus. 

7.  Illustrate  the  law  of  increasing  returns  in  manufactur- 
ing- 

8.  Explain  how  so  many  millions  can  live  on  the  small 
space  of  earth  occupied  by  New  York  City. 

9.  Illustrate  the  increase  of  luxuries  in  the  last  century. 
Show  how  competition  for  place  has  increased. 

10.  Report  statistics  of  birth-rate  and  death-rate  in  various 
countries. 

11.  Summarize  the  facts  favoring  Malthas'  law  and  those 
favoring  its  opposite. 

12.  Summarize  the  arguments  in  favor  and  against  the 
probability  of  further  increase  in  general  intelligence 
in  man. 

13.  Describe  more  fully  the  possibilities  and  probabilities 
of  man's  increasing  in  special  types  of  intelligence. 

14.  Discuss  ways  of  raising  the  general  standards  of  intel- 
ligence by  means  of  eugenics. 

15.  Discuss  the  possibility  of  improving  man  by  education. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

A  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  BEHAVIOR  AND  NEEDS 

Consciousness  and  group  behavior.  Some  of  the 
earlier  sociologists,  notably  Rousseau,  held  that  human 
beings  formed  groups  instead  of  living  solitary  lives,  be- 
cause of  a  social  contract  by  which  they  gave  up  certain 
individual  rights  in  order  to  gain  the  advantages  that 
came  from  association  with  others.  If  this  were  to  be 
taken  literally,  nothing  could  be  farther  from  the  truth. 
Men  have  always  lived  in  groups  as  they  are  impelled 
to  do  by  instinct.  It  is  the  hermit  who  acts  in  accord- 
ance with  conscious  states  instead  of  according  to  his 
instinct,  who  separates  himself  from  the  group.  There 
are  many  advantages  gained  from  forming  groups,  but 
consciousness  of  the  advantages  is  not  necessarily  the 
cause  of  their  being  formed.  Instinct  rather  than  con- 
sciousness plays  the  larger  part  in  the  social  actions  of 
animals,  of  primitive  man,  and  also  of  even  the  most 
civilized  men. 

The  chief  basis  of  the  psychology  of  the  crowd  is  the 
instinctive  tendency  to  respond  to  the  actions  and  sig- 
nals of  others  in  a  more  or  less  imitative  way.  If  one 
individual  shrieks  and  starts  to  run,  others  do  the  same, 
and  soon  the  whole  crowd  is  in  a  panic  of  fear  that  is 
not  based  upon  any  knowledge  of  danger,  but  is  excited 
by  the  cries  and  movements  of  the  others.  A  mob  may 
burn  and  slay  under  the  stimulus  of  cries  and  gestures, 
with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  occasion  for  the  act 
of  vengeance. 


A  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  BEHAVIOR      33 

Giddings  regards  consciousness  of  kind  as  one  of  the 
most  important  factors  in  social  action.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly true  that  animals  are  more  sensitive  to  the  cries 
and  actions  of  members  of  their  own  species  than  they 
are  to  those  of  another  species,  and  this  is  true  also  of 
hiunan  beings.  Even  in  persons,  however,  this  is  in- 
stinctive rather  than  involving  a  definite  thought  of 
others  as  being  like  ourselves.  It  is  primarily  the  like- 
ness rather  than  the  consciousness  of  the  likeness  that 
gives  all  the  same  impulse  and  brings  about  group  ac- 
tion. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  some  sort  of 
common  consciousness  is  an  important  element  in  social 
action.  Common  consciousness  is  produced  by  a  com- 
mon situation  and  by  common  movements  and  atti- 
tudes, and  it  often  is  an  important  means  of  unifying 
a  group  of  people  and  getting  them  ready  for  coopera- 
tive action.  This  common  consciousness,  however,  is 
not  likely  to  consist  so  much  in  a  distinct  thought  of 
others  as  being  like  ourselves,  as  it  is  in  a  feeling  that 
others  have  the  same  needs  that  we  have.  The  fact 
that  people  of  many  different  races  may  persistently 
cooperate  and  act  together  in  a  strike,  shows  that  need 
rather  than  mental  and  physical  similarity  is  the  es- 
sential element  in  group  action.  Similarity  is  favorable 
to  group  action,  probably  in  part  because  the  similarity 
gives  a  stronger  impression  of  the  needs  being  the  same 
and  partly  because  those  who  are  similar  can  under- 
stand one  another  better  and  .can,  therefore,  cooperate 
more  effectively. 

Consciousness  and  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  un- 
doubtedly play  a  large  part  in  the  higher  forms  of  co- 
operative action.   This  is  shown  especially  in  planning 


34  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

the  actions  of  a  group  so  as  to  satisfy  the  common 
need.  The  work  to  be  done  by  each  individual  and  the 
rules  that  guide  him  in  doing  it  must  be  carefully  for- 
mulated. Instinctive  impulses  furnish  the  motive  for 
cooperative  action  and  conscious  intelligence  devises 
the  means.  Of  all  modes  of  common  action  the  utter- 
ance of  words  is  the  most  important.  It  is  through  the 
common  consciousness  thus  produced  that  knowledge, 
the  highest  product  of  social  action,  residts. 

The  social  instincts  of  man.  Man,  like  many  other 
species  of  animals,  has  probably  always  lived  in  groups. 
This  group  life  has  produced  a  profound  influence  upon 
his  nature.  His  most  useful  forms  of  behavior  are  either 
reactions,  in  company  with  others,  to  forces  and  objects 
in  nature,  or  reactions  to  what  other  human  beings  are 
doing. 

During  the  long  period  of  infancy  and  immaturity 
it  is  much  more  necessary  that  the  child  shall  notice 
and  react  to  persons  than  to  things.  He  is  dependent 
upon  persons  for  food  and  protection.  It  is  better  that 
he  shall  call  for  food  and  react  to  the  signal  that  food 
is  present  than  that  he  himself  shall  search  for  it.  It  is 
more  important  that  he  shall  respond  to  danger  signals 
than  that  he  shall  perceive  the  danger  himself. 

In  animal  and  primitive  human  groups  the  individual 
that  is  quick  to  respond  to  food  signals  has  a  better 
chance  to  be  well  fed  than  those  that  are  less  sensitive 
to  the  movements  and  sounds  of  their  companions,  and 
the  one  that  responds  most  quickly  to  danger  signals  is 
most  likely  to  escape.  The  young  that  reach  maturity 
are,  therefore,  not  necessarily  the  strongest  and  boldest, 
but  those  that  are  most  sensitive  to  what  their  older 
companions  do  and  who  react  most  quickly  in  an  ap- 


A  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VIEW   OF  BEHAVIOR      35 

propriate  way.  In  some  respects  group  life  is  more 
favorable  to  weaker  individuals  than  it  is  to  the  strong. 
In  the  competition  within  the  group,  however,  for  food 
and  for  mates,  the  strong  have  the  advantage  and  thus 
a  balance  is  preserved.  The  young  animal  or  child  that 
is  sensitive  to  what  members  of  the  group  are  doing 
gains  through  imitating  their  safer  line  of  conduct. 
When  the  young  are  partly  grown,  they  begin  to  come 
into  competition  with  their  elders,  and  those  who  are 
first  to  perceive  that  the  older  ones  have  satisfied  their 
hunger  will  be  better  fed  than  those  who  are  slower, 
whUe  those  who  attempt  to  secure  the  food  too  soon 
may  get  hurt.  Similar  conditions  exist  between  adults 
and  the  leader  of  the  group. 

Also,  in  all  the  activities  concerned  in  securing  a 
mate,  a  premium  is  put  upon  quick  perception  of  the 
meaning  of  actions  of  mates  and  rivals.  The  individual 
that  most  quickly  perceives  the  meanings  of  move- 
ments and  that  most  accurately  estimates  the  strength 
of  rivals,  is  the  one  that  is  likely  to  survive  and  pro- 
duce descendants.  Since  any  individual  that  makes  a 
wrong  move  which  angers  his  elders  or  the  leader  is 
likely  to  be  driven  away,  while  those  that  act  in  just 
the  right  way  at  the  right  time  have  privileges  and  ad- 
vantages, there  is  developed  a  strong  instinctive  tend- 
ency to  act  so  as  to  secure  the  approval  of  other  mem- 
bers of  the  group. 

Leaders  must  not  only  be  quick  to  perceive  and  to 
act,  but  their  actions  must  be  impressive  to  others.  A 
leader  must  be  able  to  attract  attention  and  to  stimu- 
late to  the  kind  of  action  he  desires.  A  leader  observes 
his  followers  and  by  doing  just  the  right  thing  at  the 
right  time  is  able,  through  the  action  of  others,  to  get 


36  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

more  that  he  desires  than  he  could  by  his  own  efforts. 
In  meeting  and  fighting  with  individuals  of  his  own 
species  within  and  without  the  group,  success  depends 
as  much  on  the  ability  to  anticipate  what  the  opponent 
will  do  as  it  does  upon  strength  and  quickness.  These 
facts  make  it  evident  why  the  interest  and  attention 
of  human  beings  are  concerned  more  with  what  other 
human  beings  are  doing  than  with  anything  else,  and 
why  desire  for  approval  plays  such  a  large  part  in  life. 
People  instinctively  seek  to  remain  with  other  persons 
because  they  are  lonely  and  uncomfortable  without  the 
stimulus  of  other  people. 

Common  needs  of  animals  and  human  beings.  Man, 
like  other  animals,  has  need  of  food,  and  also  like  them 
is  endowed  with  the  instinct  to  get  it.  He,  as  well  as 
they,  has  need  of  protection  from  dangers  of  various 
kinds  and  has  the  instinct  to  escape  from  danger.  Like 
them  he  requires  a  mate  and  is  endowed  with  the  mating 
instinct.  Man,  in  common  with  other  animals  that  live 
in  groups,  needs  the  companionship  of  those  of  his  own 
kind,  and  instinctively  seeks  it.  Most  of  the  higher 
animals,  including  man,  have  need  for  recreation  and 
consequently  engage  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  play. 
Needs  are  the  chief  stimuli  to  action  in  both  men  and 
animals.  Hence,  sociology,  in  considering  the  actions 
of  men  in  groups,  must  take  into  account  their  needs. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  activities  of  human  beings 
are  directly  or  indirectly  aimed  toward  securing  food. 
The  chief  difference  between  men  and  animals  in  this 
respect  is,  that  while  animals  find  their  food,  civilized 
man  produces  it.  The  need  for  food  is  the  principal  oc- 
casion for  the  phenomena  of  group  activity  considered 
under  the  head  of  economics.   The  need  for  protection 


A  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  BEHAVIOR      37 

from  danger  has  given  rise  to  most  of  the  activities  con- 
sidered under  the  head  of  political  science.  The  need 
for  a  mate  not  only  perpetuates  the  species,  but  has  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  primary  social  group,  the  family. 
The  need  of  companionship  has  led  to  the  formation  of 
many  other  groups  more  or  less  permanent,  while  the 
need  of  recreation  has  led  to  various  activities  of  play 
and  amusement. 

Higher  human  needs  and  instincts.  In  addition  to 
the  needs  and  instincts  possessed  in  common  with  other 
animals,  man  has  other  needs  and  instincts  that  are 
either  not  present  at  all  or  in  only  a  slight  degree  even 
in  the  higher  animals.  All  animals  have  instinctive 
modes  of  satisfying  their  wants,  while  man  is  not  so 
fully  endowed  with  fixed  instincts,  but  must  to  a  much 
greater  extent  use  his  intelligence  to  find  means  of 
satisfying  his  desires.  All  animals  as  well  as  human 
beings  have  the  instinct  of  curiosity.  In  man  this 
amounts  to  an  intellectual  hunger  to  know.  It  is  not 
limited  to  curiosity  regarding  the  necessities  of  life,  but 
extends  to  aU  sorts  of  phenomena.  This  becomes  then 
a  genuine  need  of  human  beings,  and  means  of  satisfy- 
ing it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  are  being  used  wher- 
ever there  are  groups  of  people,  civilized  or  uncivilized. 

The  need  for  beauty  is  one  that  is  also  very  strong  in 
man  and  shown  only  slightly  or  not  at  aU  by  animals. 
Music,  art,  and  literature  are  the  products  of  activities 
concerned  in  satisfying  this  need. 

Among  all  human  beings  there  is  a  very  distinct  need 
for  the  regulation  of  conduct.  Other  animals  have  this 
to  only  a  slight  extent  because  their  instincts  direct 
them.  Man,  acting  partly  in  accordance  with  intelli- 
gence, feels  the  need  of  some  directing  and  control- 


38  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ling  influence.  This  need  has  given  rise  to  two  in- 
fluences regulating  conduct,  the  moral  and  the  religious. 
In  morals  the  individual's  actions  are  directed  not 
wholly  by  his  own  impulses  or  wishes,  but  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  customs  and  wishes  of  the  group  to 
which  he  belongs.  In  religious  regulation  of  conduct, 
the  wishes  of  some  spirit  are  the  standard.  This  need 
for  the  regulation  of  conduct  by  something  outside  of 
one's  self  has  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  social 
development,  and  cannot  be  ignored  by  the  scientific 
sociologist. 

Classification  of  sociological  phenomena.  So  varied 
and  complex  are  the  phenomena  of  group  life  and  action 
and  the  resulting  products  that  a  satisfactory  classifica- 
tion is  exceedingly  difficult.  Considerable  simplification 
results,  however,  when  we  reflect  that  all  actions  of  men 
singly  and  in  groups  are  the  result  of  instinctive  im- 
pulses to  satisfy  needs.  These  needs,  although  largely 
individual  in  character,  are  common  to  all  human  beings 
and  many  of  them  can  be  satisfied  only  through  group 
life.  Cooperative  action  is  a  more  effective  means  of 
satisfying  these  common  needs  than  individual  effort. 
It  is  clear,  then,  that  all  sociological  phenomena,  from 
the  comparatively  blind  action  of  the  mob  up  to  the 
most  intelligent  cooperative  institutional  activity  of 
highly  civilized  man,  constitute  forms  of  action  by  means 
of  which  the  needs  of  the  group  are  satisfied.  If,  there- 
fore, we  classify  social  actions  and  social  products  ac- 
cording to  the  ends  served,  we  shall  have  a  classification 
that  is  fundamentally  the  same  for  all  grades  of  civiliza- 
tion and  for  permanent  groups  of  all  sizes. 

These  needs  are  closely  related  and  the  means  of 
satisfying  them  involve  some  of  the  same  activities. 


A  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  BEHAVIOR      39 

Hence,  even  on  this  basis,  lines  must  not  be  draven  too 
sharply.  It  will  be  of  great  help,  however,  to  be  able 
to  apply  a  few  fundamental  conceptions  to  group  life 
in  its  various  stages  of  evolution. 

Among  every  group  of  people  we  shall  find  that  most 
of  the  sociological  phenomena  may  be  considered  under 
the  following  heads  :  First,  economic  needs  and  activi- 
ties which  were  concerned  primarily  with  securing  food 
and  gaining  protection  against  climatic  changes,  and 
secondarily  with  the  production  and  distribution  of  ma- 
terial things  that  serve  these  and  other  purposes ;  second, 
protective  needs  and  the  resulting  activities,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  guard  against  dangers  to  the  group  from 
other  groups,  from  dangers  of  the  environment,  and  from 
the  action  of  anti-social  individuals  within  the  group 
who  would  otherwise  not  conform  to  the  regulations 
necessary  in  order  to  preserve  life  and  property  against 
death  and  injury ;  third,  recreative  needs  and  those 
activities  by  means  of  which  bodyandTaind  are  re- 
freshed ;  fourth,  social  needs  and  the  activities  which 
satisfy  the  social  instincts  ;  fifth,  cultural  needs  and  the 
activities  which  gratify  intellectual  and  aesthetic  desires; 
sixth,  idealistic  or  moral  and  religious  needs  and  activi- 
ties that  are  concerned  in  the  fixing  of  standards  for 
the  regulation  of  action  within  the  group  ;  seventh,  edu- 
cationaL^needs  and  activities  which  result  in  teaching 
the  younger  generation  the  means  to  use  in  satisfying 
their  wants. 

The  sociological  life  of  every  group,  small  or  large, 
savage  or  civilized,  may  be  studied  under  these  heads, 
and  every  custom,  machine,  and  institution  is  a  means 
of  satisfying  one  or  more  of  these  needs. 


40  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

EXERCISES 

1.  Report  on  the  "  social-contract "  theory. 

2.  Give  reasons  for  the  view  that  social  development  has 
been  and  still  is,  to  a  large  extent,  instinctive  rather  than 
conscious  and  intentional. 

3.  How  can  people  who  have  a  common  language  cooperate 
better  than  those  who  can  communicate  with  one  another 
only  by  signs  ?  How  may  they  profit  by  the  experiences 
of  one  another? 

4.  Illustrate  that  we  notice  the  movements  of  strangers 
whom  we  meet  and  quickly  decide  how  to  act  in  relation 
to  them. 

5.  Illustrate  the  strength  of  the  competitive  instinct  and  of 
the  desire  for  approval. 

6.  Show  that  the  social,  intellectual,  and  sesthetic  interests 
are  more  prominent  in  man  much  of  the  time  than  the 
biological  instincts  by  which  life  is  preserved. 

7.  Show  how  intelligence  makes  greater  cooperation  pos- 
sible. 

8.  Give  illustrations,  from  your  own  community  life,  of  co- 
operative acts  to  secure  economic,  protective,  recrea- 
tional, social,  cultural,  regulative,  or  educational  ends. 

9.  Make  a  list  of  a  dozen  or  more  machines  and  institu- 
tions and  state  what  need  or  needs  they  serve. 


CHAPTER  V 

ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

Needs,  values,  and  wealth.  The  science  of  economics 
treats  of  the  production,  distribution,  and  use  of  wealth. 
From  one  standpoint  it  is  simply  a  division  of  sociology. 
The  strictly  economic  view,  however,  is  concerned  chiefly 
with  the  material  objects  of  wealth  and  efliciency  in 
their  production,  while  sociology  is  concerned  rather 
with  the  producers  of  wealth,  their  cooperative  activi- 
ties and  their  welfare.  The  primary  cause  of  economic 
activity  is  the  need  for  food  and  shelter,  but  other 
needs  are  also  satisfied  by  the  production  of  objects  of 
value.  Whatever  will  satisfy  any  human  need  has  a 
value.  If  it  can  be  exchanged  for  something  else  that 
will  satisfy  desire,  it  is  wealth,  or,  in  other  words,  has 
economic  value.  If  individuals  or  a  group  of  people 
gather  food  and  consume  it,  no  wealth  is  produced, 
but  if  one  catches  fish,  another  hunts  game,  a  third 
raises  corn,  and  a  fourth  makes  tools,  and  they  ex- 
change their  several  products,  they  have  produced 
wealth. 

The  earth  furnishes  the  materials  for  the  production 
of  wealth,  but  in  general  it  does  not  become  such  until 
labor  has  been  expended  upon  it.  Most  economic  activ- 
ity is  concerned  with  the  transportation  of  material 
products,  with  making  changes  in  the  earth  by  means 
of  which  more  may  be  obtained,  with  the  transformation 
of  products  into  a  liable  form,  or  with  getting  them  to 
consumers. 


4&  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Economic  activity  and  cooperation.  All  economic  ac- 
tivity is  in  its  very  nature  cooperative.  The  effort  that 
one  expends  in  getting  directly  what  wiU  satisfy  his  de- 
sires is  not,  properly  speaking,  economic  activity.  It  is 
only  when  he  expends  labor  to  produce  something  that 
can  be  exchanged  for  what  will  satisfy  desire  that  his 
activity  is  economic  in  character.  The  man  who  gathers 
bananas  for  his  own  consumption  is  not  engaged  in 
economic  activity,  but  if  he  gathers  more  than  he  wants 
and  exchanges  the  surplus  for  fish,  meat  or  grain,  tools 
or  clothing,  he  is  so  engaged.  He  and  all  those  that  ex- 
change with  him  are  satisfying  their  desires  by  indirect 
means.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  civilized  human  beings 
differ  most  from  savages  and  from  animals.  Activity  of 
this  kind  is  necessarily  cooperative  because  it  is  utterly 
impossible  for  each  to  satisfy  his  several  desires  unless 
others  put  forth  the  effort  to  produce  what  he  wishes. 
Hundreds  of  people  who  have  never  seen  one  another, 
therefore,  continually  cooperate  in  meeting  their  own 
and  others'  needs. 

If  the  man  who  is  raising  grain  produces  an  insufifi- 
cient  amount  or  an  inferior  quality,  others  are  affected 
almost  as  much  as  if  they  had  failed  properly  to  perform 
their  own  part.  The  sum  total  of  desires  that  may  be  satis- 
fied is  increased  by  increased  efficiency  on  the  part  of  any 
of  the  workers  and  is  decreased  by  idleness  and  ineffi- 
ciency. Any  individual  who  consumes  what  others  pro- 
duce and  produces  little  or  nothing  himself  is  a  burden 
upon  the  cooperating  group.  This  is  very  evident  in 
the  case  of  a  small  party  of  explorers  who  must  travel 
and  draw  their  sledges  a  certain  distance  before  their 
food  supply  is  exhausted.  If  a  man  is  crippled  and  can 
no  longer  help,  but  continues  to  eat,  he  is  a  burden 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  43 

upon  the  party  and  may  bring  disaster  upon  the  ex- 
pedition. 

The  same  principle  holds  good  for  the  whole  civil- 
ized world.  Idleness  or  inefficiency  on  the  part  of  any 
decreases  the  total  amount  of  wealth  and  some  are 
deprived  of  what  they  would  otherwise  have  had. 

Burdensome  classes.  In  every  community  and  every 
nation  there  are  many  who  are  not  producers.  The 
largest  group  of  these  comprise  children  who  are  not 
old  enough  to  labor.  Those  who  are  too  old  to  work 
effectively  constitute  another  class  always  to  be  found. 
In  addition  there  are  a  large  number  who  are  sick  or 
defective  and  are,  therefore,  either  temporarily  or  per- 
manently non- workers.  To  these  must  be  added  a  great 
many  who  are  able  to  work,  but  who  do  not  care  to  do  so 
or  who  are  unable  to  obtain  employment.  Besides  these 
there  are  many  women  who  are  engaged  in  home-mak- 
ing, an  activity  classified  in  statistics  as  non-economic. 

In  every  country  each  producer  of  wealth  has  to  fur- 
nish the  means  of  support  not  only  for  himself,  but  for 
one  or  more  other  persons.  With  the  best  possible  social 
adjustments  probably  less  than  one  half  of  the  total 
population  of  any  country  could  be  economically  active. 
In  this  country  only  a  little  over  one  third  are  pro- 
ducers of  wealth.  One  of  the  chief  problems  of  practical 
sociology  is  that  of  adding  to  the  number  of  workers 
and  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  those  who  do  work. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  the  United  States  ten 
million  people  who  occasionally  or  regidarly  receive 
financial  assistance.  Besides  these,  criminals  in  large 
numbers  must  be  supported  and  guarded.  Many  are  a 
burden  upon  society  because  of  heredity,  others  because 
of  sickness  or  accidents,  and  others  because  financial 


44  FUNDAMENTALS  OP  SOCIOLOGY 

and  social  conditions  are  such  that  they  cannot  be  profit- 
ably employed  where  they  are  and  no  means  have  been 
provided  for  taking  them  to  where  employment  may 
be  found.  Still  others  are  not  profitably  employed  be- 
cause they  have  not  been  trained  for  the  work  that 
would  otherwise  be  open  to  them. 

Economic  consumption  of  wealth.  In  cooperative 
economic  activity  consumption  of  wealth  plays  an  im- 
portant part  and  some  ways  of  consuming  wealth  are 
of  greater  advantage  to  all  the  people  than  others.  If 
a  man  makes  a  bonfire  of  his  wheat  instead  of  using  it 
himself  or  exchanging  it  for  something  else,  he  has  de- 
stroyed rather  than  used  a  certain  amount  of  wealth. 
He  must  consume  food  that  some  one  else  has  produced 
in  order  himself  to  remain  an  effective  producer,  and 
the  world's  supply  of  wheat  has  been  diminished  so 
that  some  one  will  have  to  do  with  less  bread  or  all 
will  have  to  give  an  increased  amount  of  some  other 
product  to  secure  it.  If  a  man  consumes  more  of  any 
form  of  food  than  he  needs  there  will  be  less  for  others, 
and  he  himself  is  likely  to  become  a  less  efficient  pro- 
ducer because  of  injury  to  his  health. 

If  a  man  spends  his  money  in  buying  stone  and  em- 
ploying workmen  to  build  a  monument  for  himself,  he 
is  wasting  a  portion  of  the  world's  wealth  because  he 
is  putting  it  into  a  form  that  will  not  be  of  use  to  any 
one  else  unless  it  is  a  genuine  work  of  art.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  he  puts  the  same  stone  into  a  suitable 
building  it  may  remain  of  value  to  the  world  and  be 
useful  to  many  generations. 

In  general  that  is  the  most  useful  consumption  of 
wealth  which  either  embodies  it  in  a  form  that  will 
continue  to  be  valuable  to  others,  or  which  makes  its 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  46 

consumers  more  efficient  producers.  Any  consumption 
of  wealth  which  transforms  it  so  that  it  can  no  longer 
be  used,  or  that  lessens  the  efficiency  of  those  whose 
desires  are  satisfied,  is  bad,  and  injures  not  simply  the 
individual,  but  all  who  are  cooperating  in  economic 
activity. 

Uses  of  wealth  that  satisfy  desire,  without  either  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  the  efficiency  of  the  consumer, 
or  interfering  with  others,  may  be  classed  as  neither 
exceptionally  bad  nor  good.  It  is  a  matter  for  the  par- 
ties concerned  individually  to  decide  what  desires  to 
satisfy,  whether  sensory,  intellectual,  or  artistic. 

Tools  and  wealth  production.  There  is  very  little 
production  of  wealth  without  the  use  of  tools  of  some 
kind.  Tools  are  inventions  by  means  of  which  labor  is 
made  more  effective,  more  wealth  is  produced  by  the 
same  amount  of  effort,  and  many  things  are  done  that 
would  be  impossible  without  them.  A  man  could  cul- 
tivate the  ground  with  his  fingers,  but  if  he  spends 
part  of  his  time  in  constructing  an  implement  for  work- 
ing the  ground,  or  in  working  for  some  one  else  who 
constructs  it,  and  then  uses  this  implement  in  raising 
his  crop,  he  will  probably  have  larger  results  than  if 
he  spent  all  the  time  working  with  his  fingers. 

The  labor  expended  in  the  making  of  tools  is  an  in- 
direct means  of  producing  what  will  satisfy  desire, 
which  is  worth  while  when  the  tool  constructed  enables 
one  to  accomplish  more  than  would  have  been  possible 
by  direct  effort,  A  tool  is  a  material  embodiment  of 
both  skill  and  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  maker  and 
it  may  be  useful  long  after  his  death.  The  same  is  true 
of  all  implements  and  machines  used  in  producing 
wealth.  The  invention  of  a  useful  tool  or  machine  may 


46  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

enable  one  man  to  do  the  work  of  ten.  This  will  tem- 
porarily throw  some  of  them  out  of  a  job  and  they  may 
think  it  is  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing.  Considering, 
however,  the  whole  body  of  producers,  every  invention 
that  diminishes  the  amount  of  labor  required  to  pro- 
duce a  given  amount  of  wealth  is  of  advantage.  Some 
of  this  advantage  is  diminished  by  the  time  required  to 
construct  the  machine  and  by  loss  of  time  of  those  who 
are  temporarily  thrown  out  of  work,  but  ultimately  all 
may  find  work  of  another  kind  and  the  total  amount 
of  wealth  produced  will  be  increased.  This  will  make 
it  possible  for  the  cooperating  group  of  people  either 
to  satisfy  more  desires  or  decrease  the  number  of  hours 
that  they  must  labor. 

Machines  and  industries.  These  facts  apply  equally 
to  tools  and  machines.  A  distinction  between  the  two 
is,  however,  worth  noting.  A  tool  demands  strength, 
skill,  and  intelligence  to  use  it,  while  the  operator  of  a 
machine  may  require  these  qualities  in  only  a  slight  de- 
gree, although  a  great  deal  of  intelligence  is  needed  by 
the  one  who  constructs  it  or  keeps  it  in  running  order. 
The  intelligence  of  the  constructor  of  the  machine 
makes  it  possible  for  it  to  be  run  by  one  of  the  forces 
of  nature  and  the  movements  of  its  parts  are  made 
with  such  exactness  that  very  fine  work  is  produced  by 
an  operator  without  much  intellectual  capacity.  For 
example,  the  modern  loom,  run  by  steam  and  directed 
by  patterns  punched  in  cardboard,  weaves  intricate 
designs  and  the  loom  tender  does  little  but  supply  it 
with  material  and  repair  breaks.  The  power  sewing- 
machine  requires  no  strength  to  run  it  and  no  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  operator  to  direct  the  movements  of 
the  needle,  and  with  suitable  attachments  no  great  de- 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  47 

gree  of  skill  and  intelligence  is  required  to  manipulate 
the  fabric  so  as  to  produce  remarkable  results  in  the 
way  of  hemming,  ruffling,  etc.  Since  the  need  for  intel- 
ligence and  skill  is  supplied  by  a  machine,  its  tender 
does  not  need  those  qualities  to  the  same  extent  as  does 
the  wielder  of  tools.  The  old-time  shoemaker  had  con- 
siderable intelligence  and  a  good  deal  of  skill  in  using 
his  tools.  Now  there  are  machines  for  the  various  proc- 
esses of  shoemaking  and  a  large  proportion  of  those 
engaged  in  the  industry  are  simply  machine  tenders. 
Each  can  acquire  in  a  few  days  all  the  skill  necessary 
for  adjusting  the  materials  to  the  action  of  the  machines. 

In  some  industries  machines  have  been  improved  so 
that  they  are  automatic  and  adjust  for  themselves  the 
materials  upon  which  they  work.  Of  these,  the  modem 
printing-press  which  takes  a  roU  of  paper  and  in  an 
hour  turns  out  a  hundred  thousand  copies  of  folded 
and  counted  newspapers  is  a  striking  example.  Inven- 
tive genius  is  producing  machinery  more  and  more 
automatic,  but  whether  there  will  ever  come  a  time 
when  hides  can  be  fed  into  a  machine  at  one  end  and 
shoes  turned  out  at  the  other,  is  doubtful. 

As  long  as  tenders  of  machines  are  required,  many 
workmen  with  little  skill  and  intelligence  may  be  em- 
ployed. On  the  other  hand,  skilled  workmen  are  re- 
quired to  manufacture  these  machines,  to  keep  them 
in  running  order,  and  to  manage  machines  and  workers 
so  that  they  will  produce  to  their  fidl  capacity  and  so 
that  there  will  be  no  loss  of  time  in  passing  material 
from  one  process  to  another.  Many  intelligent  workers 
must  also  be  employed  in  buying  material,  transporting 
it,  selling  the  finished  product,  keeping  accounts,  etc. 
On  the  whole,  then,  machine  production  requires  less 


48  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

strength  and  less  variety  of  skill  on  the  part  of  some 
of  the  workers,  but  a  much  higher  grade  of  intelligence 
on  the  part  of  many  of  those  engaged  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  producing  and  distributing  the  goods. 

Machines,  capital,  and  managers.  Machines  are  the 
residt  of  past  effort  and  they  serve  more  and  more  as 
substitutes  for  present  effort.  A  hundred  men  working 
with  crude  tools  may  not  be  able  to  produce  as  much 
as  a  single  man  using  a  machine.  At  the  present  time, 
therefore,  wealth  is  being  produced  not  so  much  by 
those  who  are  now  working  as  by  the  stored-up  results 
of  past  labor.  The  first  step  in  starting  a  manufactur- 
ing plant  in  these  days  is  not  to  find  workers,  but  to 
get  buildings  and  machines.  This  is  what  gives  capital 
its  prominent  place  in  modern  industry.  The  owner  of 
the  capital  does  not  necessarily  engage  in  the  industry 
himself.  He  may  lend  his  money  to  another  person  who 
becomes  the  manager  of  the  business.  This  manager 
must  get  proper  machinery,  purchase  raw  materials, 
arrange  for  the  efficient  working  of  every  machine  and 
man  employed,  and  find  a  market  for  the  products.  To 
do  this  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  is  required  and 
many  subordinate  helpers  or  heads  of  departments  are 
needed.  This  furnishes  a  marked  contrast  to  former 
methods  of  production  when  tools  only  were  used.  Each 
workman  had  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  tools  and  he  was  his  own  manager  and 
salesman.  Capital  played  a  small  part  in  the  production 
of  wealth  and  varied  but  not  profound  intelligence  was 
required. 

Institutions  and  production.  In  general,  machine 
production  is  profitable  only  when  a  large  quantity  of 
goods  of  the  same  kind  is  to  be  produced.  If  a  single 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  49 

chair  of  a  certain  style  is  to  be  made,  it  will  be  eco- 
nomical to  use  tools  in  constructing  it,  but  if  a  hundred 
thousand  are  required,  it  will  pay  to  use  machinery, 
and  the  cost  per  chair  will  be  only  a  small  part  of 
what  it  would  be  if  tools  were  used.  Thus,  production 
by  machinery  inevitably  tends  to  result  in  large  fac- 
tories. It  follows  that  a  large  amount  of  capital  is 
needed  and  that  the  business  must  be  carried  on  for  a 
long  period  of  time.  With  rare  exceptions  could  a  sin- 
gle man  furnish  the  capital  and  manage  the  business. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  to  a  very  large  extent  insti- 
tutions in  the  form  of  companies  or  corporations  have 
taken  the  place  of  individuals  in  the  production  and 
distribution  of  wealth.  A  company  is  organized,  capital 
is  furnished  by  the  various  stockholders,  and  managers 
are  secured.  They  hire  workers,  conduct  the  business, 
and  establish  the  reputation  of  the  firm.  Such  an  in- 
stitution, after  being  well  organized,  may  continue  its 
work  in  much  the  same  way  regardless  of  the  fact  that 
the  owners  of  the  capital,  the  managers,  and  workmen 
are  changing  from  year  to  year.  With  the  development 
of  big  business  and  its  conduct  by  corporations  there  is 
a  growing  tendency,  not  only  for  workers  to  specialize, 
but  for  institutions  to  be  developed  for  special  purposes. 
Banking  institutions  facilitate  the  purchase  of  mate- 
rials, the  payment  of  workers,  and  the  selling  of  goods. 
Advertising  agencies  take  charge  of  making  the  goods 
known  to  the  world,  transportation  companies  bring 
materials  and  carry  away  the  products.  Insurance 
agencies  guard  against  loss  to  goods  and  to  workmen 
through  accidents.  In  addition  to  this  associations  are 
formed  by  the  managers  of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments and  trade  unions  by  the  workers. 


50  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Advertising  and  standardization  of  products.   The 

change  from  tool  to  machine  production  immensely 
complicates  the  problem  of  selling  goods.  Machine  pro- 
duction necessarily  means  that  a  larger  quantity  of  goods 
must  be  produced  in  one  place  than  can  be  used  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood.  Hence  these  goods  must  be 
sold  to  strangers  in  distant  places.  The  old-time  shoe- 
maker made  shoes  for  his  immediate  neighbors  who 
came  personally  and  bought  them.  The  modern  shoe- 
maker makes  shoes  for  people  all  over  the  country  and 
perhaps  for  those  in  other  countries.  He  can  make 
a  pair  of  shoes  for  a  fraction  of  the  cost  to  the  old- 
time  shoemaker,  but  after  they  are  made  he  must  spend 
a  good  deal  of  money  in  making  them  known  to  cus- 
tomers and  in  getting  the  goods  to  them  and  the  money 
in  return,  or  he  must  seU  them  to  wholesale  dealers  who, 
through  retail  merchants,  get  them  into  the  hands  of 
customers. 

There  is  always  a  considerable  difference  between  the 
cost  of  manufacturing  goods  and  the  price  paid  by  the 
customer,  the  latter  being  often  from  two  to  ten  times 
the  former.  This  difference  is  spent  in  advertising,  sell- 
ing, and  transporting  the  goods.  One  of  the  problems  of 
modem  economics  is  to  reduce  the  cost  of  getting  goods 
from  the  manufacturer  to  the  consumer.  Except  in  the 
case  of  very  heavy  goods,  transportation  is  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  expense.  Millions  are  spent  in  making 
the  goods  known  or  advertising,  and  the  rest  goes  to 
pay  the  wholesale  and  retail  merchants  or  the  so-called 
middlemen. 

One  of  the  most  promising  means  of  reducing  this 
cost  is  through  the  standardization  of  products.  There 
is  very  little  money  spent  in  advertising  sugar,  and 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  51 

although  It  is  a  comparatively  heavy  substance  to  ship 
there  is  only  a  small  difference  between  the  cost  of 
manufacture  and  the  price  to  consumers.  This  is  due 
chiefly  to  the  fact  that  sugar  is  a  known  product  of 
standard  quality  and  is  in  extensive  and  constant  de- 
mand. No  money  need  be  spent  in  making  it  known  or 
urging  people  to  buy ;  it  is  not  perishable  and  the 
amount  used  is  large.  Hence  dealers  can  afford  to  sell 
it  at  a  small  profit.  In  proportion  as  goods  of  any  kind 
come  into  general  use  and  are  standardized  as  to  quality, 
is  the  cost  to  consumers  reduced  and  without  any  loss 
to  manufacturers  or  middlemen.  In  the  case  of  tool- 
made  articles,  for  the  special  use  of  individuals,  a  stand- 
ard product  is  undesirable,  but  for  machine-made  prod- 
ucts, for  use  by  people  who  have  no  chance  to  inspect 
the  goods  before  purchasing,  standardization  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  advantageous. 

The  standard  product  is  much  more  cheaply  produced 
by  the  manufacturer  and  after  it  has  once  become  well 
known  little  advertising  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure 
regular  sales  at  fixed  prices.  When  sewing-machines 
were  first  invented  they  were  costly  to  manufacture  and 
could  be  sold  only  by  glib-tongued  agents  who  must  be 
well  paid  for  their  efforts.  Now  the  housewife  does  not 
need  to  be  instructed  regarding  the  advantages  of  hav- 
ing a  machine,  and  she  probably  knows  the  different 
kinds  and  can  order  one  that  will  exactly  meet  her 
needs  without  seeing  it.  The  manufacturer  takes  care 
that  each  style  of  machine  shall  be  of  a  standard  quality 
and  he  has  machinery  for  making  each  part  by  the 
thousands,  so  that  the  cost  to  him  is  only  a  fraction  of 
what  it  formerly  was.  A  good  bicycle  can  now  be  pur- 
chased for  one  sixth  of  the  cost  of  a  poor  one  a  quar- 


62  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ter  of  a  century  ago.  At  that  time  manufacturers  were 
bringing  out  new  models  every  year,  and  because  of  that 
fact  they  had  to  do  extensive  advertising  and  frequently 
change  the  machinery  and  the  processes  of  manufacture. 
Now  everything  is  standardized  and  the  consumer  gets 
the  benefit  with  no  loss  to  the  manufacturer  and  to  the 
middleman. 

Standardization  of  product  is  of  advantage  not  only 
in  manufacturing,  but  also  in  agriculture.  Flour  is  com- 
paratively cheap,  partly  because  the  different  grades  of 
■wheat  have  been  carefully  standardized.  The  most 
marked  effects  of  standardization  have  probably  been 
produced  in  raising  and  selling  fruit.  There  was  a  time 
when  the  growing  of  oranges  in  California  was  a  very 
uncertain  business.  The  man  who  shipped  a  carload  of 
oranges  might  obtain  very  large  profits  or  they  might 
not  sell  for  enough  to  pay  the  freight.  Since  the  organ- 
ization of  fruit  exchanges  all  oranges  are  carefully 
graded  as  to  size  and  quality.  They  are  shipped  in  such 
a  way  that  they  arrive  at  their  destination  in  first-class 
condition  and  no  more  go  to  any  one  city  than  can  be 
used  there.  The  consequence  is  that  each  well-informed 
merchant  and  customer  knows  exactly  what  he  is  buy- 
ing. The  prices  are  steady  and  reasonable  to  the  cus- 
tomer Bs  are  also  the  profits  to  the  orange-grower  and 
the  merchant. 

The  lack  of  standardization  has  made  the  produc- 
tion and  marketing  of  milk  very  unprofitable.  In  most 
of  the  smaller  cities  and  villages  milk  is  delivered  to 
people  in  the  same  block  by  a  half-dozen  different  milk- 
men and  each  milkman  travels  many  miles  unneces- 
sarily to  dispose  of  his  load.  If  milk  were  standardized 
as  to  quality  so  that  a  particular  brand  of  milk  should 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  63 

"be  always  the  same,  then  the  cost  of  getting  it  to  the 
consumer  would  be  only  a  fraction  of  what  it  now  is. 
Laws  prohibiting  the  sale  of  milk  below  a  certain 
standard  of  richness  have  not  relieved  the  situation. 
It  is  not  easy  to  produce  milk  of  exactly  the  same 
richness.  It  is  unprofitable  to  make  it  richer  than  the 
required  standard  and  dangerous  to  drop  below.  In 
creameries  a  much  better  method  is  used.  The  richness 
or  amount  of  butter  fat  is  tested  and  a  corresponding 
price  is  paid.  It  is  perhaps  weU  to  require  by  law  that 
milk  be  produced  under  conditions  that  will  make  it 
healthful,  but  to  fix  just  one  standard  of  richness  is  of 
doubtful  advantage. 

Closely  associated  with  the  problems  of  advertising 
and  standardization  is  the  problem  of  constancy  in  pro- 
duction. This  is  most  difficult  to  meet  in  the  case  of 
clothing,  especially  in  millinery,  where  the  styles  are 
continually  changing.  Manufacturers  do  not  dare  to 
produce  many  goods  until  they  know  what  the  style  is 
to  be.  This  is  unfortunate  both  for  the  manufacturer 
and  for  the  workers.  The  manufacturer  has  to  make 
rather  expensive  changes  in  his  processes  when  the 
styles  change  and  usually  the  workers  can  be  employed 
only  during  a  portion  of  the  year.  This  frequently  gives 
them  an  inadequate  income,  although  the  manufacturer 
may  pay  fairly  high  wages.  Goods  that  are  not  quickly 
sold  are  a  partial  or  total  loss.  The  ultimate  increased 
cost  of  goods  produced  under  such  conditions  must,  of 
course,  be  paid  by  the  consumer. 

There  is  another  side  to  advertising  and  standardiza- 
tion that  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  A  standardized 
product  may  not  be  as  good  as  it  should  be.  The  more 
completely  a  product  is  standardized  the  more  difficult 


64  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

it  is  to  induce  people  to  use  something  new  that  is 
really  better.  It  is  unfortunate,  therefore,  for  any  prod- 
uct to  be  standardized  before  a  reasonable  degree  of 
perfection  has  been  reached.  The  kind  of  advertising 
which  makes  people  familiar  with  things  that  are  more 
healthful,  economical,  and  useful  than  those  that  they 
have  been  using  is  for  the  good  of  society.  It  is  a 
means  of  education  that  has  had  a  profound  influence 
upon  people  of  all  classes  and  upon  the  efficiency  with 
which  every  variety  of  process  is  carried  on. 

Machine  production  and  growth  of  cities.  Since 
machine  production  is  more  profitable,  the  larger  the 
amount  produced,  thousands  of  workers  are  employed 
in  a  single  factory  and  must  live  in  more  or  less  close 
proximity  to  it.  This  requires  the  presence  of  many 
selling  and  transporting  agencies  and  consequently  each 
factory  is  the  nucleus  for  a  large  population.  Although 
there  were  some  large  cities  before  the  days  of  machine 
production,  the  increase  of  urban  as  compared  with  the 
rural  population,  in  the  United  States  especially,  has 
been  very  rapid  in  the  last  forty  years.  This  brings 
into  especial  prominence  the  problems  of  city  life. 

One  that  is  now  receiving  most  attention  is  that  of 
city  planning,  especially  the  question  of  proper  hous- 
ing. In  the  early  days  of  city  planning,  ideals  of  beauty 
were  prominent,  but  now  it  is  recognized  that  the  most 
important  problem  of  all  is  so  to  lay  out  the  streets  and 
mark  off  the  lots  that  everybody  may  have  sufficient 
space,  and  that  transportation  from  one  part  of  the  city 
to  another  may  be  ample  for  all  purposes.  Streets  are 
costly  to  maintain  and  should  not  therefore  be  broader 
than  necessary.  If  buildings  are  tall  the  streets  must 
be  wider  to  accommodate  the  increased  population.   If 


ECONOMIC   NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  55 

dwelling-houses  are  only  one  or  two  stories  in  height 
the  city  must  be  spread  over  a  large  area,  and  either 
the  workers  must  be  located  near  their  places  of  em- 
ployment or  cheap  means  of  transportation  must  be 
supplied.  In  order  to  be  healthful  buildings  must  have 
sufficient  light  and  air,  must  not  be  overcrowded,  and 
must  be  properly  supplied  with  sewers  and  water.  Un- 
less these  necessities  are  furnished  at  a  reasonable  cost, 
overcrowding  is  almost  inevitable.  Careful  social  studies 
indicate  that  the  results  of  this  evil  are  many  and  seri- 
ous from  the  point  of  view  of  sociology. 

Efficiency  of  workers.  Efficiency  in  the  industries 
demands  not  only  that  the  best  machines  shall  be  used 
and  shall  be  run  in  the  most  efficient  manner,  but  also 
that  there  shall  be  capable  workers  kept  constantly  in 
good  working  condition.  Manufacturers  appreciated 
the  necessity  of  having  the  best  machines  and  of  keep- 
ing them  in  good  running  order  long  before  they  learned 
the  value  of  having  their  workers  in  good  condition. 
It  was  formerly  thought  that  it  was  profitable  to  the 
manufacturer  to  employ  men  for  as  small  wages  as 
possible  and  for  the  greatest  number  of  hours,  and  to 
assume  no  responsibility  whatever  for  their  health  or 
their  freedom  from  accidents.  It  has  been  proved  by 
some  manufacturers  that  in  their  business  exactly  the 
opposite  is  true.  They  have  increased  wages,  decreased 
hours,  put  in  safety  appliances,  taken  means  for  proper 
housing  of  their  help  and  for  keeping  them  contented 
and  happy,  and  every  one  of  these  changes  has  resulted 
in  increased  production.  How  far  this  may  profitably 
be  carried  and  whether  it  will  prove  true  in  all  occu- 
pations remain  to  be  established. 

In  addition  to  these  means  of  promoting  efficiency 


56  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

there  are  two  others  receiving  a  great  deal  of  attention 
from  employers,  shop  management  and  vocational  edu- 
cation. 

Regulation  of  industries.  With  the  development  of 
big  business  and  the  change  from  individual  manage- 
ment to  institutional  control  and  with  the  increase  in 
the  number  of  people  affected  by  each  industry  and  its 
methods,  regulation  becomes  inevitable.  Every  institu- 
tion has  its  rules  that  must  be  followed  by  all  persons 
connected  with  it.  These  rules  are  chiefly  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  business.  The  good  of  the  people  gen- 
erally, however,  has  made  necessary  the  passing  of 
legislation  regarding  the  management  of  institutions. 
For  the  conduct  of  many  of  these,  laws  have  been  made 
which  insure  that  they  will  be  conducted  more  safely  and 
advantageously  than  if  they  were  managed  according 
to  the  best  individual  judgment.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  laws  regarding  the  conduct  of  banks  and  insur- 
ance companies.  Laws  regulating  railroad  and  other 
corporations  are  also  proving  very  helpful.  Much  of 
this  regulation  of  industries  is  the  remote  but  inevit- 
able result  of  the  production  of  wealth  by  means  of 
machinery  and  progress  in  learning. 

EXERCISES 

1.  When  does  water  become  wealth  ? 

2.  Mention  various  classes  of  persons  and  modes  of  ac- 
tivity that  are  to  the  disadvantage  of  others  who  belong 
to  the  same  cooperating  group. 

3.  How  are  other  people  affected  by  slow,  irregular,  and 
defective  work  on  the  part  of  several  laborers  in  a 
manufacturing  plant  such  as  a  car  factory  ? 

4.  Look  up  statistics  of   the  numbers  of  the  defective 


ECONOMIC  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  67 

classes  and  of  their  cost,  and  of  the  economic  losses 
due  to  sickness,  accident,  and  unemployment. 
6.  Name   a  half-dozen  ways    of    consuming  wealth   and 
show  which  are  the  most  and  which  the  least  profitable 
modes  of  using  it,  and  why. 

6.  Can  you  supply  arguments  that  will  convince  a  man 
who  has  been  thrown  out  of  work  by  a  machine,  that 
the  machine  is  a  good  thing  ? 

7.  Compare  the  difference  in  skill  and  intelligence  neces- 
sary if  ten  thousand  men  are  employed  in  carrying 
freight  on  their  backs  or  are  transporting  it  by  wagons 
or  by  motor  truck  or  by  steam  car,  taking  into  account 
those  engaged  in  constructing  the  apparatus  and  in 
directing  the  operation,  noting  the  difference  in  general 
intelligence  and  in  specialization  of  knowledge  and 
skill. 

8.  On  the  average  in  this  country,  labor  receives  about 
three  fourths  of  the  value  of  what  is  produced  and 
capital  one  fourth.  Mention  industries  in  which  there 
are  great  variations  from  these  proportions  and  tell 
which  are  most  developed. 

9.  Look  up  and  report  regarding  the  development  of  some 
such  institution  as  a  corporation,  bank,  or  insurance 
company,  or  summarize  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  institutions  taking  the  place  of  individual  effort 
in  the  same  processes. 

10.  Give  a  number  of  examples  of  the  advantages  of  stand- 
ardization. 

XI.  When  is  the  cost  of  advertising  a  burden  upon  the 
people  generally,  and  when  is  it  of  advantage  to  all  ? 

12.  State  advantages  to  employer,  employees,  and  con- 
sumers of  continuous  demand  for  and  production  of 
goods  in  some  special  line. 

13.  From  the  history  of  some  city  show  how  it  has  grown 
and  how  its  problems  of  housing  have  been  brought  about 
through  the  establishment  of  one  or  more  factories. 

14.  Compare  the  value  of  a  man  thirty  years  old  with  the 


58  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

value  of  a  harvesting  machine  or  motor  truck  that  will 
last  for  ten  years,  as  a  producer  of  wealth,  and  show 
the  comparative  advantages  of  keeping  both  in  good 
working  condition  and  in  steady  use.  Consider  both  the 
immediate  employer  and  the  general  public. 
15.  Prepare  a  paper  on  the  conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources, then  one  upon  the  conservation  of  human 
resources,  and  discuss  the  relative  value  of  the  two. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

Primitive  protective  activities.  In  primitive  life  pro- 
tective activity  is  caxried  on  chiefly  in  connection  with 
the  smallest  social  group,  the  family.  The  father  pro- 
tects against  wild  beasts  and  against  human  enemies 
within  the  tribe  and  without.  Protection  against  the 
elements  is  generally  provided  for  the  family  by  its 
own  members.  There  is  very  little  done  for  protection 
against  accident,  fire  or  flood,  or  against  disease. 

Where  a  number  of  families  are  living  together  as 
a  more  or  less  distinct  tribe  or  group  of  people,  pro- 
tection by  the  larger  group  becomes  necessary.  This  is 
most  frequently  brought  about  through  conflict  with 
other  groups.  In  order  to  defend  themselves  against 
enemies  there  must  be  some  kind  of  organized  group 
activity.  Natural  leaders  assume  direction  of  the  fight- 
ing in  time  of  war.  If  they  are  successful,  they  gain 
great  authority  over  other  members  of  the  group,  not 
only  when  fighting  but  at  other  times.  Their  supremacy 
leads  to  the  formation  of  customs  and  laws  prescribing 
what  different  classes  may  and  may  not  do.  Thus  is  es- 
tablished a  more  or  less  distinct  permanent  government. 

In  cases  where  the  larger  group  takes  the  character 
of  a  patriarchal  family  and  there  is  little  fighting  with 
other  tribes,  the  older  men  exercise  protective  functions 
similar  to  that  of  the  father  in  a  family,  and  out  of  this 
grows  a  more  or  less  definite  form  of  government  ad- 
ministered chiefly  by  the  elders  of  the  tribe. 


60  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Customs  and  laws  are  established  not  only  through 
the  evident  need  for  them  and  through  the  personal  in- 
fluence of  leaders,  but  they  are  usually  emphasized  and 
made  more  effective  by  association  with  superstitious 
and  religious  beliefs.  It  is  taught  that  those  who  dis- 
regard them  will  suffer  more  severe  punishment  from 
spirits  and  gods  than  can  be  inflicted  by  man.  Leaders, 
especially  of  the  "  shaman "  type,  use  this  means  of 
establishing  and  enforcing  customs  and  laws  very  effec- 
tively. They  broaden  the  sphere  of  government  by  pre- 
scribing courses  of  action  which  are  supposed  to  protect 
not  only  against  enemies,  wild  beasts,  and  accidents, 
but  against  disease  and  injury  to  property  and  growing 
crops.  From  such  conditions  ultimately  arises  the  insti- 
tution of  government,  exercising  protective  functions 
and  regulating  the  conduct  of  various  classes  of  people. 

Development  of  the  institutions  of  government. 
Most  governments,  especially  those  developing  under 
the  influence  of  war,  are  at  first  personal  in  character. 
If  the  group  governed  comes  to  be  a  large  one  by  con- 
quest or  otherwise,  one  man  is  unable  to  carry  on  all 
the  functions  of  government.  He  must  have  helpers 
who  form  a  secondary  governing  class.  Able  men 
among  these  subordinates  are  likely  to  undertake  to 
wrest  the  government  from  the  chief.  In  the  rivalry 
and  fighting  that  follow  between  such  leaders,  each  seeks 
the  help  of  the  common  people  and  the  one  who  gets  the 
help  of  the  majority,  by  whatever  influences  he  is  able 
to  bring  to  bear  upon  them,  is  likely  to  succeed  in  the 
contest. 

The  primitive  leader  usually  makes  laws  that  give 
himseK  and  his  friends  special  privileges  and  that  im- 
pose upon  the  populace  burdens  and  restrictions  of  va- 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         61 

rious  kinds.  When,  however,  leaders  contend  with  each 
other  and  seek  the  aid  of  the  common  people,  they  find 
it  necessary  to  secure  that  aid  by  promising  more  favor- 
able laws  to  them.  Thus  there  is  a  constant  tendency 
in  the  direction  of  making  laws  for  the  protection  of  the 
common  people  as  well  as  of  those  of  the  higher  classes, 
and  as  the  common  people  become  intelligent  they  gain 
a  larger  and  larger  share  in  determining  what  laws 
shall  be  made.  This  general  tendency  is  very  well  illus- 
trated by  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  English 
constitution.  In  the  contest  between  king  and  nobles, 
the  common  people,  in  return  for  money  and  service, 
gained  more  privileges  and  more  influence  in  the  mak- 
ing of  the  laws,  until,  at  the  present  time,  although 
king  and  nobles  remain,  the  people  rule. 

This  tendency  toward  democratic  government  would 
appear  to  be  inevitable  among  people  of  intelligence : 
the  many  are  stronger  than  the  few  and  in  the  course 
of  ages  will,  in  every  country,  assume  control  of  the 
government.  With  the  growth  of  democracy,  laws  are 
made  to  protect  the  weak  as  well  as  the  strong. 

National  government  generally  grows  out  of  warfare 
with  other  nations.  (As  people  become  more  intelligent 
they  develop  more  effective  ways  of  dealing  with  other 
nations,  and  commerce  and  diplomacy  take  the  place  of 
warfare.  Historically  the  Romans  were  among  the  ear- 
liest to  develop  methods  of  dealing  with  surrounding 
tribes  by  treaty  and  contract  instead  of  by  warfare. 
They  established  definite  bounds  for  each  tribe  and 
made  regulations  regarding  the  crossing  of  these  bound- 
aries, and  thus  laid  the  foundations  for  international 
law  as  they  also  did  for  civil  law  governing  the  people 
within  the  nation. 


02  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Where  a  large  number  of  people  are  under  one  gov- 
ernment it  is  impossible  for  a  central  authority  effec- 
tively to  control  all  of  them.  Local  officials  with  more  or 
less  authority  must  officiate  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
country.  In  most  countries  there  exist,  therefore,  sev- 
eral units  of  government,  the  national  government,  the 
local  government  of  the  small  group  or  community,  and 
usually  one  or  more  intermediate  units  such  as  the 
province,  county,  or  state.  The  national  government 
concerns  itself  chiefly  with  all  that  is  necessary  to  the 
protection  of  the  nation  against  other  nations  and  to 
the  maintenance  of  conditions  of  prosperity,  while  the 
smaUer  units  of  government  are  concerned  chiefly  with 
the  protection  of  the  person  and  property  of  the  various 
classes  of  individuals  within  the  community. 

In  considering  the  development  of  governments  as 
they  now  exist,  it  would  not  be  correct  to  say,  either 
that  national  governments  are  the  result  of  uniting 
smaller  units  of  government  or  that  the  smaUer  units  of 
government  are  merely  differentiations  and  divisions  in 
national  government.  Both  kinds  of  change  have  taken 
place,  and  government  as  it  now  exists  in  any  country 
is  the  result  of  a  double  set  of  influences,  one  national, 
the  other,  local.  The  comparative  extent  of  control  ex- 
ercised over  the  people  by  the  local  and  by  the  national 
units  of  government  varies  greatly  in  different  coun- 
tries. In  all,  the  national  government  is  supreme  in  all 
matters  concerning  war,  while  under  even  the  most 
autocratic  government  the  local  community  has  some 
degree  of  freedom  in  controlling  the  activities  of  its 
members. 

Internal  protectioii.  Protection  of  people  within  the 
group  is  now  usually  provided  by  a  unit  of  government 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES        63 

intermediate  between  that  of  the  nation  and  of  the  local 
community.  In  the  United  States  this  intermediate  unit 
is  the  State.  In  primitive  times  men  defended  them- 
selves individually  or  sometimes  by  uniting  in  a  group 
against  some  strong  offender.  Many  persons,  though 
individually  weak,  by  uniting  could  thus  control  the  ac- 
tion of  the  strongest  individual  who  would  interfere 
with  their  rights.  With  further  development  the  pro- 
tecting group  became  permanent  and  more  or  less  well- 
defined  methods  of  procedure  were  established. 

The  primitive  laws  were  established  customs,  or, 
where  new  conditions  arose,  they  were  the  decisions  of 
the  leaders  of  the  group  or  the  majority  opinion  of  the 
whole  group,  and  judgment  was  rendered  and  executed 
either  by  the  community  acting  as  a  sort  of  a  mob  or  by 
certain  recognized  leaders  who  heard  the  evidence  and 
decided  what  punishment  should  be  given  the  offender* 

In  modem  times  an  advance  was  made  from  customs 
and  personal  judgment  to  statute  laws  and  court  trials. 
Definite  laws  were  enacted  by  the  people  or  proclaimed 
by  the  accepted  leaders  and  officials  were  appointed  to 
apply  and  execute  them.  When  industries  became  di- 
versified and  large  numbers  of  people  lived  together, 
laws  prescribing  what  each  person  must  or  must  not  do 
increased  in  number  and  more  definite  regulations  be- 
came necessary  regarding  the  application  of  laws  and 
their  execution.  At  the  present  time  these  regulations 
are  so  numerous  that  experts  in  the  law  are  necessary, 
and  judges  act  almost  whoUy  in  accordance  with  the 
prescribed  rules  of  court  procedure  instead  of  exercising 
their  personal  judgment  regarding  each  case  brought 
before  them.  In  the  effort  to  prevent  miscarriage  of 
justice  through  the  bad  judgment,  prejudice,  and  cor- 


64  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ruption  of  individual  judges,  this  system  of  court  pro- 
cedure has  become  in  this  country  so  cumbersome  and 
complex  that  only  experts  can  take  part  in  it  and  in- 
dividuals are  often  wronged  through  the  judges  apply- 
ing the  law  strictly  in  accordance  with  court  methods. 

Many  are  also  beginning  to  question  whether  society 
is  really  protected  by  our  present  methods  of  dealing 
with  criminals.  For  the  most  part  there  is  no  natural 
relation  existing  between  the  crime  and  the  punishment 
inflicted.  Imprisonment  of  some  kind  is  applied  to  all 
varieties  of  criminals.  Since  the  criminal  has  not  con- 
trolled his  own  actions  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  other 
people,  it  is  fitting  that  he  should  lose  his  liberty  and 
that  his  actions  should  be  directed  for  a  time  by  society. 
However,  his  own  good  and  that  of  society  demand 
that  this  forcible  control  shall  be  continued  no  longer 
than  is  necessary.  The  individual  should  be  treated  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  him  capable  of  controlling  him- 
self and  he  should  then  be  set  at  liberty.  Under  the 
methods  that  have  been  in  use,  criminals  have  often 
been  rendered  less  capable  of  self-control  and  then  have 
been  set  at  liberty,  only  to  do  further  damage  and  to 
be  rearrested.  It  is  claimed  that  the  effect  of  imprison- 
ment is  to  confirm  criminals  in  their  criminality  rather 
than  to  cure  them  and  that  the  brutalizing  effects  upon 
keepers  of  the  prisoners  are  almost  equally  bad. 

Considerable  improvements  have,  however,  recently 
been  made.  The  laws  now  admit  indeterminate  sen- 
tences and  shortened  time  for  good  behavior,  provide 
for  remunerative  and  educative  employment  while  in 
prison  and  for  parole  and  reinstatement  in  society. 

Development  of  laws.  With  the  growth  of  civiliza- 
tion, laws  have  increased  not  only  in  number,  but  also 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES        65 

in  variety.  They  are  now  concerned  far  less  with  pro- 
tection against  violence  and  far  more  with  protection 
against  interference  with  property,  health,  and  com- 
fort. This  is  inevitably  the  case  because  growth  of 
civilization  always  results  in  an  immense  increase  in 
wealth  and  usually  means  a  much  greater  density  of 
population  and  closer  relations  of  people  to  one  another. 
Acts  which,  in  a  sparse  population  and  where  there  is 
little  property,  would  cause  no  injury  to  any  one,  may, 
in  a  crowded  district,  seriously  endanger  the  property, 
life,  and  health  of  thousands.  So  complex  is  our  present- 
day  civilization  that,  without  laws  to  guide  one  as  re- 
gards setting  of  fires,  disposal  of  garbage,  rate  of  travel, 
etc.,  even  well-intentioned  people  may  interfere  with  the 
rights  and  pleasures  of  others. 

Under  the  older  conception,  a  law  was  a  command 
or  decree  issued  by  some  one  in  authority  to  prevent 
certain  classes  or  individuals  from  performing  wrong 
acts  or  from  interfering  with  other  people.  Under  the 
more  modern  conception,  laws  mark  out  a  mode  of  pro- 
cedure which,  if  followed,  will  be  of  advantage  to  all 
parties  concerned.  Under  this  new  view  of  law  we  may 
compare  legislation  to  the  making  of  rules  or  directions 
for  running  a  machine  or  carrying  on  the  work  of  a 
shop.  A  law  is  a  social  discovery  or  invention  which 
prescribes  and  enforces  the  kind  of  action  that  is  most 
favorable  to  group  welfare. 

The  construction  of  a  law  is  much  more  difficult  than 
the  framing  of  a  set  of  rules  for  running  a  machine  or 
a  shop  or  for  conducting  a  scientific  experiment,  because 
the  law  must  not  only  prescribe  the  right  methods  of 
procedure,  but  it  must  provide  penalties  and  rewards 
or  advantages  which  will  induce  all  parties  concerned 


66  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

to  act  in  accordance  with  its  provisions.  A  law  pre- 
scribing just  what  may  not  be  done  and  imposing  very 
severe  penalties  may  entirely  fail,  partly  because  the 
advantages  of  disregarding  it  are  very  great,  and  partly 
because,  when  the  penalties  are  severe,  those  concerned 
in  applying  and  enforcing  it  may  sympathize  so  strongly 
with  the  violator  that  there  will  be  few  arrests,  con- 
victions, or  punishments.  A  successful  law  must  be 
founded  upon  scientific  knowledge  and  practical  expe- 
rience and  must  be  so  adapted  to  the  people  and  to  the 
conditions  that  with  rare  exceptions  all  will  find  it  best 
to  obey  the  law  and  to  inflict  punishment  upon  the  few 
who  disobey  it. 

In  our  modern  democratic  government  we  are  recog- 
nizing more  and  more  that  a  law  framed  in  the  interest 
of  certain  classes  of  individuals  can  never  be  of  perma- 
nent advantage  to  the  group  as  a  whole.  We  are  also 
recognizing  that  so  far  as  the  ends  to  be  attained  are 
concerned  the  wishes  of  the  people  shall  dictate,  but 
that  the  framing  of  the  law  as  a  means  to  reaching  the 
desired  ends  must  be  the  work  of  experts  and  that  laws 
must  be  modified  in  the  light  of  experience.  These 
principles  are  being  recognized  by  the  extension  of  the 
referendum,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  by  the 
appointment  of  special  commissions  to  investigate  con- 
ditions and  formulate  laws  that  will  bring  about  the 
results  desired  by  the  people. 

Protection  against  the  elements  and  disease.  From 
earliest  times  diseases  of  many  sorts  have  been  the 
deadly  foe  of  men,  especially  whenever  a  large  number 
were  living  close  together.  The  artificial  conditions  cre- 
ated by  man  demand  special  modes  of  action  in  order 
that  he  may  be  sheltered  from  the  elements  and  may 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         67 

maintain  his  health  in  his  artificial  environment  and  in 
close  association  with  others  who  may  be  suffering  from 
contagious  disease.  No  matter  how  wise  or  careful  the 
individual  may  be,  he  cannot  insure  his  own  health  un- 
less his  neighbors  are  equally  wise  and  careful,  and  per- 
haps not  even  then  unless  certain  rules  of  procedure 
are  agreed  upon  and  carried  out.  This  is  the  reason 
why  so  many  laws  of  the  present  day  are  concerned  with 
housing  and  health  conditions.  That  man  can  succeed 
in  maintaining  health  in  close  settlements,  living  under 
artificial  conditions,  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  in 
cities  where  health  regulations  are  properly  carried  out 
the  death-rate  is  already  considerably  less  than  in  coun- 
try districts  where  natural  conditions  are  more  favor- 
able, but  where  less  attention  is  given  to  the  proper 
regulation  of  housing  and  sanitation. 

The  fact  remains,  however,  that  the  housing  problem 
and  the  sanitary  and  other  problems  associated  with  it 
are  most  serious  ones  in  all  our  cities  and  even  in  the 
smaller  towns.  Small  houses,  large  families,  wells,  vaults 
or  cesspools,  garbage  thrown  out  into  the  back  yards, 
may  not  be  a  serious  matter  in  widely  scattered  settle- 
ments among  people  who  spend  most  of  their  time  out 
of  doors,  but  in  thickly  settled  regions,  where  people 
spend  much  of  their  time  indoors,  rooms  must  be  open 
to  the  sun  and  must  not  be  overcrowded  at  night; 
water  must  be  supplied  from  distant  and  pure  sources, 
sewerage  and  garbage  disposal  must  be  managed  by 
cooperative  means,  and  all  sources  of  contagion  must 
be  removed  or  isolated. 

The  housing  problem  is  so  intimately  related  to  every 
phase  of  life  that  it  must  be  regulated  by  law  and  by 
cooperative  action  in  order  that  not  only  the  poor,  but 


68  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

also  the  wealthy  may  be  properly  protected  under  the 
conditions  of  city  life.  Every  family  must  be  provided 
with  housing  that  is  at  least  healthful,  and  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  community  demands  that  it  shall  also  be  more 
or  less  pleasing  and  agreeable  to  its  occupants  and  easily 
accessible  to  means  of  livelihood  and  recreation. 

The  housing  problem  is  thus  associated  with  every 
phase  of  city  life  and  is  the  most  important  one  to  be 
considered  in  planning  a  city  and  in  establishing  local 
rules  and  regulations.  Laws  must  be  made  as  to  the 
height  and  locality  of  buildings  of  various  kinds,  their 
manner  of  construction  with  regard  to  safety  from  fire, 
their  health  conditions  as  to  lighting,  heating,  ventilat- 
ing, and  plumbing.  These  laws  must  be  based  upon  a 
real  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  housing  conditions  and 
must  be  accompanied  by  proper  public  provision  for 
supplying  water  and  for  sewage  and  garbage  disposal. 
In  a  thickly  settled  region  it  would  be  utterly  impos- 
sible for  each  individual  to  make  these  provisions  for 
himself.  The  facilities  must  be  provided  by  cooperative 
means  and  the  use  of  them  regulated  by  law. 

Since  under  such  conditions  very  little  if  any  food 
can  be  produced,  it  is  necessary  that  regulations  shall 
be  made  regarding  the  character  of  the  food  brought 
into  the  city  and  supplied  to  the  people.  Each  individ- 
ual may  not  be  allowed  to  buy  and  sell  as  he  chooses, 
for  the  consumer  of  milk  infected  with  typhoid  germs 
may  in  turn  infect  other  people  who  exercise  the  great- 
est care  in  their  choice  of  food. 

Protection  against  accidents.  Man  has  always  been 
subject  to  injury  by  the  unusual  action  of  the  forces  of 
nature,  such  as  fire  and  flood,  and  through  accidents  by 
falls  and  otherwise.  Primitive  men  had  no  means  of 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         69 

guarding  against  such  injuries,  except  by  means  of 
charms,  and  when  accidents  did  occur  they  did  little 
that  was  effective  in  promoting  a  cure.  In  modem 
times,  by  cooperative  action,  floods  may  be  stayed,  pre- 
cautions are  taken  against  fires,  and  many  things  are 
done  to  minimize  accidents.  When  fires  do  break  out 
there  are  in  all  large  cities  more  or  less  efficient  fire 
departments  for  extinguishing  them. 

In  America  much  greater  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  means  of  fighting  fires  than  in  ways  of  prevent- 
ing them.  In  Europe  the  materials  used  and  the  build- 
ing regulations  enforced  render  fires  comparatively  rare 
and  the  need  of  efficient  fire  departments  much  less 
great.  When  fire  loss  does  occur  we  have,  through  in- 
surance companies,  a  very  sure  and  effective  means  of 
distributing  the  loss  so  that  it  does  not  fall  heavily  upon 
any  one  person.  This  does  not,  however,  prevent  the 
loss  by  fire  from  being  a  genuine  and  often  extensive 
economic  loss  to  the  community  and  to  the  nation  as  a 
whole. 

The  possibility  of  injury  through  accidents  has 
greatly  increased  with  the  dense  population,  the  exten- 
sive use  of  machinery  and  of  rapidly  moving  vehicles 
of  many  kinds.  Accidents  are  common,  although  they 
have  recently  been  diminished  by  traffic  regulations, 
traffic  officials,  and  by  safety  devices.  In  the  industries 
and  in  transportation  the  chances  for  accidents  are  still 
so  numerous  that  in  the  United  States  the  number  of 
persons  killed  and  injured  by  accidents  has  amounted 
to  over  two  hundred  thousand  in  a  single  year. 

In  recent  years  a  great  deal  has  been  done  toward 
decreasing  the  number  of  accidents,  by  laws  making  the 
employer  responsible  for  damages,  by  the  invention  and 


70  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

use  of  safety  devices,  and  by  the  avoidance  of  unfavor- 
able conditions,  such  as  fatigue  and  drunkenness,  under 
which  accidents  most  frequently  occur.  The  destruc- 
tion of  human  life  and  of  human  efficiency  is  also  ren- 
dered less  disastrous  to  the  individual  family  through 
accident  and  life  insurance,  either  voluntary  or  enforced 
by  the  state. 

When  accidents  do  occur  there  are  very  efficient 
means  provided  for  caring  for  the  injured,  in  the  form 
of  apparatus  for  first  aid  to  the  injured,  ambulances, 
and  well-equipped  hospitals.  "Within  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  there  has  been  an  almost  complete  change 
from  the  guarding  against  and  treatment  of  accidents 
by  individuals  to  a  more  effective  control  of  such  mat- 
ters by  institutions  and  laws. 

Protection  of  the  weak.  Long  after  the  common 
people  were  given  comparatively  equal  rights  under  the 
law  and  a  voice  in  the  making  of  laws,  the  weak  and 
helpless  members  of  society  were  left  to  perish  or  to  be 
cared  for  or  abused  by  individuals.  Only  within  the  last 
century  have  they  been  extensively  protected  and  cared 
for  by  institutions.  At  first  these  institutions  were  pri- 
vate organizations,  one  for  the  insane,  another  for  the 
poor,  others  for  the  blind,  deaf,  crippled,  diseased,  aged, 
etc.,  but  in  recent  years  such  persons  have  not  only 
been  protected  by  the  laws  of  the  state,  but  they  are 
now  in  most  places  partially  or  wholly  cared  for  at  the 
expense  of  the  state  or  of  the  local  community,  imless 
their  friends  provide  for  them. 

In  the  case  of  the  poor  we  are  still  in  a  transition 
stage.  In  nearly  all  communities  the  poor  are  helped 
by  private  individuals,  charitable  societies,  and  by  the 
state,  county,  town,  or  city.  In  most  places  individual 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         71 

help  has  been  replaced  by  institutional  relief  with  ad- 
vantage to  the  community.  The  relief  of  poverty  may 
do  more  harm  than  good  if  the  individual  receiving 
help  becomes  a  permanent  pauper.  This  is  more  Hkely 
to  occur  when  the  relief  is  received  from  private  indi- 
viduals who  are  not  personally  acquainted  with  the  ones 
receiving  charity  than  it  is  when  the  matter  is  handled 
by  trained  charity  officials  who  investigate  the  case,  find 
out  exactly  what  the  conditions  are,  and  what  relief,  if 
any,  is  being  received  from  other  sources. 

So  effective  has  been  the  work  of  some  of  the  chari- 
table organizations  that  public  funds  have  been  turned 
over  to  them  instead  of  being  expended  through  regu- 
larly appointed  poor  officers.  Whether  this  will  prove 
to  be  a  good  solution  of  the  problem  is  doubtful.  In 
proportion  as  the  private  institutions  are  supported  by 
public  funds  instead  of  by  philanthropic  gifts,  there  is 
something  of  a  tendency  for  the  officials  of  the  socie- 
ties to  lose  the  personal  enthusiasm  and  interest  that 
have  distinguished  them  from  the  city,  town,  or  county 
officials  administering  poor  relief.  In  order  that  relief 
may  be  given  without  destroying  self-respect  and  pro- 
ducing permanent  pauperism,  it  must  be  given  under 
the  law  as  a  right,  or  it  must  be  given  by  those  who 
have  sympathetically  studied  the  case  and  who  supply 
it  temporarily  in  a  form  that  helps  the  individual  to  re- 
instate himself  as  a  self-supporting  member  of  society. 

The  latest  and  apparently  most  promising  means  of 
giving  relief  for  widows  and  children,  without  destroy- 
ing self-respect,  is  in  the  form  of  mothers'  pensions,  a 
certain  amount  being  paid  to  the  mother  for  caring  for 
her  children  instead  of  supporting  them  in  an  institu- 
tion. 


72  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Another  attempted  solution,  especially  as  regards 
poverty  due  to  old  age,  is  to  provide  compulsory  insur- 
ance and  old-age  pensions. 

A  very  great  advance  has  been  made  in  recent  years 
in  the  public  protection  of  children.  Formerly  they 
were  entirely  under  the  control  of  their  parents  or  other 
guardians  and  were  subject  to  kindness  or  overwork 
and  abuse  according  to  the  nature  of  the  persons  who 
had  them  in  charge.  Now  their  rights  are  strictly 
guarded  even  against  parents,  from  whose  control  they 
may  be  taken  if  abused  or  neglected.  They  are  not  per- 
mitted to  work  until  of  a  suitable  age,  or  to  work  at 
night  or  for  more  than  a  certain  number  of  hours  per 
day,  in  most  of  the  states  in  this  country.  They  are 
provided  with  educational  opportunities,  and,  if  they 
have  no  parents,  are  cared  for  by  private  societies  regu- 
lated by  law  or  in  state  institutions.  This  is  true  not 
only  of  normal  children,  but  also  of  the  feeble-minded, 
deaf,  and  crippled. 

In  taking  over  this  control  of  children  by  the  state 
it  has  been  found  that  strictly  institutional  management 
is  not  very  successful.  The  best  institutions,  in  caring 
for  these  children,  imitate  the  home  as  far  as  possible 
by  putting  them  in  small  cottages  instead  of  in  large 
buildings.  Even  this  is  not  generally  as  good  for  normal 
children  as  placing  them  in  caref uUy  selected  private 
homes  where  they  have  the  advantages  of  real  family 
life,  although  it  is  an  adopted  family. 

Protection,  prevention,  and  control  by  government. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  the  protective  activities  of 
government  have  become  more  and  more  necessary  as 
civilization,  specialization,  and  density  of  population  in- 
crease. Men  of  intelligence  have  been  brought  to  realize 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         73 

more  and  more  that  the  most  effective  form  of  protec- 
tion is  that  of  prevention.  This  has  extended  the  law 
beyond  what  is  primarily  protective  in  character.  This 
is  especially  true  when  protection  is  supplied  in  an  en- 
tirely indirect  way,  as,  for  example,  when  the  people  of 
a  city  are  protected  against  the  depredations  of  a  gang 
of  boys  by  establishing  schools  and  playgrounds  to 
occupy  the  time  and  energy  of  boys,  or  when  crime  is 
diminished  by  furnishing  working  people  with  oppor- 
tunities for  wholesome  recreation. 

Such  considerations  and  practices  have  led  to  an  en- 
tire change  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  functions  of 
government.  The  idea  that  government,  national,  state, 
and  local,  should  be  administered  for  the  welfare  and 
happiness  of  all  the  people  is  rapidly  gaining  ground 
and  being  embodied  in  the  laws  of  our  country.  It  is 
being  found  that  an  increasing  number  of  the  activities 
of  life  can  be  carried  on  more  economically  and  efficiently 
by  institutions  under  state  regulations  than  by  indi- 
viduals. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  generally  accepted  that 
many  activities  should  be  conducted  either  by  institu- 
tions acting  under  the  laws  of  the  state  or  by  the  state 
itself.  Railways,  banks,  insurance  companies,  and  other 
institutions  are  now  regulated  by  law  in  a  way  un- 
dreamed of  a  generation  ago,  and  there  is  a  growing 
tendency  for  the  local,  state,  or  national  government  to 
carry  on  these  activities  instead  of  merely  regulating  the 
institutions  that  are  now  directing  them.  Many  cities 
now  control  not  only  their  sewerage  and  water  systems, 
but  also  their  lighting  system,  and  a  good  deal  is  be- 
ing done  to  control  transportation  and  the  markets. 
The  national  government   is  not  only  providing   in- 


74  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

creased  postal  facilities,  but  through  its  various  depart- 
ments is  furnishing  useful  information  regarding  a 
variety  of  occupations,  including  that  of  home-making. 
A  few  cities  have  already  established  boards  of  public 
welfare  to  supplement  the  work  of  other  departments 
of  the  city  and  to  assist  in  all  means  that  are  being 
used  to  increase  the  efficiency,  pleasure,  and  culture  of 
the  people. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  examples  of  customs  sapported  by  law  and  by 
saperstitious  or  religious  beliefs. 

2.  Discuss  class  legislation,  ancient  and  modem. 

3.  Trace  the  growth  of  democracy  in  some  country. 

4.  Describe  the  scope  and  prominence  of  control,  local, 
county,  state,  and  national,  in  various  phases  of  pro- 
tection and  regulation  of  people  in  your  section  of  the 
country,  as  regarding  health,  fire,  property,  persons. 

6.  Describe  and  compare  the  procedure  of  regular  courts 
and  of  special  courts  that  are  less  subject  to  rules  of 
court  procedure,  such  as  juvenile  courts,  courts  of  do> 
mestic  relations,  small-debtors'  courts,  etc. 

6.  Report  on  the  subject  of  prison  reform. 

7.  Examine  new  legislation  with  a  view  to  seeing  how  the 
character  of  laws  is  changing. 

8.  Describe  the  working  of  one  or  more  successful  and  one 
or  more  unsuccessful  laws  and  point  out  the  reasons  for 
success  or  failure. 

9.  Mention  health  regulations  that  are  required  of  a  city 
dweller  and  not  of  country  dwellers. 

10.  Make  special  studies  of  various  phases  of  housing  prob- 
lems and  the  part  that  legislation  has  in  solving  them. 

11.  Mention  a  number  of  laws  concerned  with  protection 
against  fires  and  accidents. 

12.  Study  some  of  the  laws  for  protection  of  the  weak,  such 


PROTECTIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         75 

as  the  blind,  insane,  etc.,  and  especially  those  for  the 
protection  of  children. 

13.  Discuss  the  working  of  the  new  laws  for  giving  home 
relief,  especially  mothers'  pensions  for  care  of  children, 
also  old-age  pensions. 

14.  Describe  movements  for  protection  by  prevention  and 
especially  by  education. 

15.  Report  upon  the  work  of  the  Board  of  Public  Welfare 
of  Kansas  City  and  discuss  the  desirability  of  such 
boards  in  all  communities* 


CHAPTER  Vn 

RECREATIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

The  pl^y  instinct.  Man  in  common  with  the  higher 
animals  manifests  the  instinct  of  play.  The  broadest 
view  of  this  subject  considers  as  playful  all  activities 
beyond  those  necessary  to  maintain  life.  In  other  words, 
play  is  the  manifestation  and  the  enjoyment  of  life 
after  the  means  of  living  have  been  obtained.  All  the 
fine  arts  and  all  knowledge  that  is  not  immediately  use- 
ful in  making  a  living  are  in  a  sense  the  products  of 
play  activity. 

Surplus  energy  and  time  are  necessary  if  play  is  to 
be  a  prominent  feature  of  life.  This  is  one  reason  why 
the  young  of  all  creatures  are  most  playful.  Variety  in 
climatic  and  other  stimuli  are  also  favorable  to  play 
activity.  The  lack  of  this  results  in  less  play  on  the 
part  of  inhabitants  of  torrid  regions,  while  lack  of  time 
and  energy  beyond  that  necessary  to  maintain  life 
limits  the  play  of  dwellers  in  frigid  zones. 

Play  is  instinctive  and  it  takes  characteristic  forms 
related  to  other  instinctive  acts.  Young  animals  play 
at  feeding,  fighting,  and  fearing,  and  are  thus  prepared 
for  the  serious  life  that  is  to  follow.  Children  do  the 
same,  and  in  addition  playfully  imitate  all  the  acts  of 
their  elders,  and  are  thus  prepared  for  the  work  they 
will  have  to  do  later. 

Man,  with  an  active  mind  as  well  as  an  active  body, 
naturally  has  a  tendency  to  greater  variety  of  play 
activity  than  other  animals  manifest.  Play  of  the  im- 


RECREATIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES        77 

agination  and  of  the  intellect,  which  is  so  prominent 
a  feature  of  human  life,  is  almost  if  not  quite  impossi- 
ble to  any  of  the  other  animals.  This  is  partly  the  rea- 
son also  why  man  has  a  keen  sense  of  humor  while  other 
animals  have  little  or  none. 

Play  and  recreatioii  in  relation  to  work.  Play  may 
l)e  regarded  as  the  most  important  and  active  form 
of  recreation,  while  rest,  change  in  surroundings,  and 
amusement  are  comparatively  passive  forms  of  recrea- 
tion. Sleep  is  recreative,  but  has  in  it  no  element  of 
play.  People  who  do  not  work  have  little  need  for 
recreative  play.  Those  who  have  a  variety  of  work  in 
moderation  also  have  comparatively  less  need  for  play, 
while  those  who  engage  in  excessive  labor  for  long 
periods  of  time  feel  more  the  need  of  sleep  and  rest. 
The  person  who  engages  in  one  kind  of  labor  for  a 
moderate  period  of  time  feels  the  most  need  for  recrea- 
tive change.  Play  supplies  this  far  more  effectually 
than  rest.  Other  activities  of  body  and  mind  need  to 
be  excited  in  order  that  physical  and  mental  balance 
may  be  restored.  If  general  as  well  as  special  fatigue 
has  been  produced  by  prolonged  activity,  amusement 
and  rest  may  be  more  recreative,  but  if  the  fatigue  is 
special,  play  calling  into  action  other  powers  is  most 
advantageous. 

In  earlier  times  play  grew  directly  out  of  work  activ- 
ity. People  engaged  in  agriculture  usually  had  periods 
of  play  at  the  close  of  the  harvest  and  frequently  also 
at  planting  time.  They  also  had  playful  competitions  to 
determine  who  could  perform  certain  kinds  of  labor 
most  quickly.  Hunters,  after  a  successful  expedition, 
frequently  engaged  in  feasting,  dancing,  and  other  play- 
ful exercises.  Warlike  people,  after  a  successful  raid. 


/ 


78  FUNDAMENTALS  OP  SOCIOLOGY 

celebrate  their  victories  by  dancing  and  play.  Impor- 
tant events  of  life,  such  as  marriages,  births,  or  even 
deaths,  are  often  celebrated  by  playful  activities.  Play 
and  work  are  thus  closely  related,  one  preparing  for  the 
other  by  the  contrast  between  them,  and  yet  play  often 
having  its  character  determined  by  the  preceding  or 
accompanying  work  activity. 

Increase  in  recreative  needs  and  activities.  Civil- 
ized man  is  a  worker  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  his 
primitive  ancestor,  and  for  the  reasons  given  above  en- 
gages in  more  extensive  and  varied  recreative  activities. 
This  is  especially  true  since  the  change  in  industries 
brought  about  by  the  invention  of  machinery  and  the 
consequent  extreme  specialization  of  labor.  Doing  the 
same  thing  over  and  over  for  hours  at  a  time  makes 
some  form  of  recreation  absolutely  necessary.  Increased 
production  through  the  use  of  machinery  and  the  fatigue 
resulting  from  continued  use  of  the  same  powers  have 
brought  about  shorter  hours  of  labor,  so  that  now  all 
workers  have  some  time  for  recreation  in  addition  to 
what  is  needed  for  work  and  rest. 

The  need  for  special  provision  for  play  and  amuse- 
ment IS  rendered  still  greater  by  the  fact  that  there  is 
little  or  no  possibility  of  directly  associating  play  and 
work  in  our  specialized  industries  and  by  the  fact  that 
children  and  young  people,  who  are  naturally  most  ac- 
tive, now  have  little  varied  work  to  do,  but  must  spend 
most  of  their  time  in  study  (which  is  their  work)  or  in 
playing  and  being  amused.  The  question  of  plays  and 
amusements  for  all  the  people,  and  especially  for  young 
people,  has,  therefore,  become  an  important  sociological 
problem.  The  fact  that  on  holidays  large  numbers  are 
arrested  for  disturbance  of  the  peace  shows  that  many 


RECREATIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         79 

persons  have  not  learned  how  to  use  their  leisure  time 
in  recreative  ways. 

History  shows  also  that  the  kind  of  amusements  in 
which  the  people  of  any  nation  engage  has  very  im- 
portant effects  upon  their  further  moral  and  social 
development.  If  his  amusement  dissipates  energy  and 
demoralizes  the  individual  instead  of  recreating  and 
inspiring  him  to  fresh  effort,  the  results  are  inevitably 
injurious. 

The  need  of  special  provision  for  recreation  is  also 
increased  by  the  fact  that  large  numbers  live  in  close 
proximity  and  the  space  for  play  activities  is  limited. 
Since  also  the  specialized  work  in  which  people  are  en- 
gaged does  not  furnish  materials  or  activities  that  can 
be  used  for  purposes  of  play  and  amusement,  the  sub- 
stitution of  games  and  play  apparatus  and  the  devising 
of  special  amusements  are  necessary. 

Development  of  games  and  amusements.  With  the 
specialization  and  regulation  of  work  activity  there  has 
also  come  about  specialization  and  regulation  of  plays 
and  amusements.  Spontaneous  dancing  and  plays  of  all 
kinds  have  largely  given  place  to  games  that  must  be 
carried  on  according  to  more  or  less  strictly  defined 
rules  and  that  in  many  cases  involve  the  use  of  special 
apparatus.  The  most  popular  games  of  to-day,  such  as 
baseball,  basketball,  football,  tennis,  and  golf,  all  require 
special  apparatus  and  suitable  spaces.  The  sports  of 
hunting,  fishing,  etc.,  can  now  be  engaged  in  only  by 
special  arrangements  and  usually  in  accordance  with 
definite  rules  and  laws  as  to  seasons  and  means  used. 

The  development  of  artificial  amusement  facilities 
has  been  even  more  marked.  The  dancing,  singing, 
story-telling,  and  dramatic  exhibitions  engaged  in  by 


80  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

the  members  of  each  community  have  been  replaced  by 
the  work  of  a  few  specially  trained  professionals  who 
furnish  the  amusement  and  entertainment  for  the  great 
mass  of  the  people. 

Machinery  has  also  entered  the  field  and  is  now  an 
essential  element  in  amusement  parks  and  moving-pic- 
ture shows.  The  moving-picture  business  now  ranks  as 
the  sixth  largest  in  the  country.  No  industries  have 
grown  more  rapidly  in  the  last  fifty  years  than  those 
concerned  in  supplying  amusement  and  recreation  for 
the  people.  Probably  one  fourth  of  all  economic  ac- 
tivity has  for  its  end  the  entertainment  of  the  people. 

Commercialized  and  institutionalized  recreations. 
In  the  cities  and  to  some  extent  also  in  the  country 
comparatively  little  recreation  is  now  obtained  except 
through  the  expenditure  of  money.  Furnishing  amuse- 
ment and  providing  facilities  for  it  have  become  dis- 
tinct vocations,  and  people  buy  their  entertainment  as 
they  do  food.  Institutions  have  also  taken  a  prominent 
place  in  supplying  means  of  recreation.  Theaters  and 
pleasure  resorts  are  in  the  hands  of  corporations  and 
syndicates  rather  than  of  individuals.  Clubs  of  all  sorts 
provide  opportunities  for  amusement  and  recreation  for 
their  members  and  sometimes  to  outsiders,  either  with 
or  without  the  payment  of  a  fee.  It  is  almost  impossible 
for  a  person  to  obtain  the  use  of  facilities  for  games  ex- 
cept through  an  institution  of  some  kind,  and  frequently 
a  membership  in  the  organization  is  necessary  in  order 
that  one  may  have  companions  in  play.  Men  must 
now  obtain  their  recreations  as  well  as  their  necessi- 
ties by  indirect  means  and  through  the  help  of  insti- 
tutions. 

Another  important  change  has  also  taken  place  as  the 


RECREATIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         81 

result  of  the  changes  just  specified.  Eecreation  is  now 
specialized  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  ever  before. 
There  are  still  some  recreations  that  appeal  to  old  and 
young  of  all  classes,  but  a  large  proportion,  especially 
those  of  an  active  rather  than  a  passive  character,  are 
specialized  for  adults  of  different  classes  and  for  chil- 
dren of  different  ages.  To  a  less  extent  than  formerly, 
therefore,  do  men,  women,  and  children  of  all  classes 
take  their  recreations  together,  especially  when  these 
recreations  take  the  form  of  play. 

Control  of  recreations.  So  long  as  recreations  of  the 
home  and  conununity  were  carried  on  without  the  help 
of  professionals  or  institutions,  there  was  less  occasion 
for  any  regulation  of  them.  Under  present  conditions 
of  commercial  and  institutional  control  of  amusements 
among  crowded  populations,  such  regulation  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  It  was  not  needed  so  much  when 
private  institutions  or  clubs  had  their  own  regulations 
for  their  members  and  when  some  philanthropic  organi- 
zations provided  means  of  recreation  for  the  general 
public,  but  when  the  furnishing  of  opportunities  for 
recreation  became  a  matter  of  business  the  interest  of 
the  public  demanded  that  there  should  be  regulation. 
In  most  communities  a  license  must  be  obtained  by 
commercial  institutions  furnishing  recreation,  and  the 
character  of  the  amusement,  and  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  given,  and  the  age  of  children  who  may  be 
admitted  are  determined  by  law. 

In  addition  to  this  there  has  developed  within  the 
last  few  years  a  tendency  not  only  to  regulate  amuse- 
ments by  law,  but  to  furnish  facilities  for  them  at  pub- 
lic expense,  and  in  some  instances  also  to  have  the  en- 
tertainments managed  by  public  officials  or  employees. 


82  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

This  movement  has  had  its  most  extensive  develop- 
ment in  the  establishment  of  playgrounds  and  parks 
often  provided  with  apparatus  and  with  some  one  to 
supervise  the  play.  In  a  few  places  municipal  theaters 
have  been  established.  PubUc  buildings,  especially 
school-houses,  are  now  being  opened  for  recreative 
purposes. 
J^  In  most  cases  as  yet,  the  entei*tainments  are  provided 
by  societies  already  existing  or  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose by  the  people  of  the  community.  Some  entertain- 
ments, such  as  band  concerts,  are  now  often  given  at 
public  expense,  and  it  may  be  that  in  time  not  only  the 
facilities  for  recreation  will  be  furnished  at  public  ex- 
pense, but  that  as  a  matter  of  course  entertainments 
will  be  provided  and  the  plays  supervised  by  public 
officials.  It  may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  it  will 
not  in  most  cases  be  best  for  the  community  to  limit  its 
activities  to  the  regulation  of  recreation  and  to  providing 
facilities,  leaving  it  to  the  initiative  of  the  people  to  de- 
vise and  direct  entertainments  and  sports  individually 
and  through  special  organizations.  It  may  also  be  well 
to  give  children  opportunities  for  spontaneous  and 
unsupervised  play. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  plays  of  animals  and  of  young  children  and 
show  how  they  prepare  for  the  work  of  life. 

2.  Describe  mental  plays,  some  of  which  result  in  artistic 
products. 

3.  Describe  the  recreations  suited  to  various  types  of  work- 
ers. 

4.  Discuss  the  need  of  public  provision  for  recreation  now 
as  compared  with  former  times. 


RECREATIVE  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES         83 

6.  Have  each  student  report  on  the  extent  to  which  play 
and  amusement  in  his  home  community  are  institutional. 

6.  Discuss  the  question  of  how  far  public  support,  admin- 
istration, and  regulation  of  play  and  amusement  should 
extend  in  various  lines  and  what  should  be  left  to  in- 
dividuals, families,  or  societies. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CULTURAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

Relation  of  culture  to  play  and  work.  The  human 
mind  is  naturally  active  beyond  the  point  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  life.  Intellectual  impulses  or  in- 
stincts, such  as  curiosity  and  the  aesthetic  instinct,  im- 
pel men  to  be  mentally  and  physically  active  in  many 
ways  not  necessary  to  bodily  existence.  The  basis  of 
cultural  needs  and  activities  is,  therefore,  much  the 
same  as  that  of  many  forms  of  play. 

Culture  is,  however,  closely  related  to  work.  Men 
have  the  instinct  to  collect,  to  construct,  and  to  deco- 
rate the  things  with  which  they  work.  The  warrior 
whose  serious  business  in  life  is  fighting  may  spend 
much  leisure  time  in  collecting  and  decorating  war  ma- 
terial, in  composing  war  songs,  practicing  war  dances, 
or  in  composing  stories,  more  or  less  imaginary,  relat- 
ing to  war.  Thinkers  and  poets  among  those  who  plant 
and  reap  may  devote  their  leisure  to  constructing  myths 
regarding  the  origin  of  grains  and  fruits. 

Superstitious  and  religious  beliefs,  as  well  as  practi- 
cal necessities,  are  also  important  sources  of  art  and 
literature.  Curiosity  is  primarily  concerned  with  things 
that  may  be  useful  or  injurious,  but  if  there  is  a  surplus 
of  time  and  energy  it  is  likely  to  be  directed  toward 
other  things,  and  thus  is  developed  a  knowledge  of 
various  objects,  relations,  and  causes. 

Such  activity  of  the  mind  is  in  a  way  playful,  as  is 
also  the  production  of  works  of  art,  but  the  interest  is 


CULTURAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  85 

more  prolonged  than  in  mere  play  and  the  results  are 
enjoyable  after  the  activity  of  production  has  ceased. 
In  this  respect  cultural  activity  differs  from  and  yet 
combines  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both  play  and 
work.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  form 
of  play  or  the  most  enjoyable  kind  of  work. 

The  enjoyment  of  the  cultural  products  of  others  is 
a  form  of  recreation  similar  to  that  of  amusement.  The 
mind  is  then  engaged  in  appreciating  the  more  strenu- 
ous yet  partly  playful  activity  of  the  artist  and  thinker. 

Hard  conditions  of  life  are  unfavorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  culture,  but  prosperous  people  with  leisure 
time  almost  surely  become  active  in  its  appreciation  and 
production  unless  they  become  dissipated  and  degener- 
ate. Sometimes  culture  is  enjoyed  and  produced  by  one 
class  of  persons  at  the  expense  of  another,  as  was  not- 
ably the  case  in  ancient  Greece.  Her  slaves  provided 
the  mean  of  subsistence  for  the  citizens,  who  devoted 
most  of  their  time  to  the  culture  of  mind  and  body. 

Social  character  of  culture.  Cultural  activity  is  in 
general  social  and  more  or  less  cooperative  in  charac- 
ter. Language,  which  represents  in  a  large  measure 
various  forms  of  culture,  is  entirely  social  in  origin.  It 
developed  partly  as  a  means  of  rendering  cooperative 
effort  more  effective  and  partly  because  of  the  impulse 
to  express  feelings  and  emotions.  Dancing,  music,  story- 
telling, painting,  and  modeling  are  carried  on  largely 
because  of  the  appreciation  of  others,  and  without  such 
appreciation  there  would  be  very  little  cultural  activity. 

Nature  is  not  as  strong  a  stimulus  to  such  activity 
as  people.  Their  personality  and  deeds  in  war,  love, 
and  religion  have  called  forth  most  of  the  world's  artis- 
tic and  literary  activity.  So  prominent  are  human  be- 


86  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ings  as  stimuli  to  cultural  activity  that  in  primitive 
times  nature  had  little  part  in  literature  except  in  so 
far  as  the  forces  of  nature  were  personified  and  human- 
ized as  spirits  or  gods  similar  to  human  beings.  In- 
tellectual, scientific,  and  poetic  interest  in  nature  was 
late  in  developing.  It  is  only  within  the  last  century 
that  culture  in  the  form  of  scientific  knowledge  of  na- 
ture has  had  a  rapid  development. 

As  previously  stated,  the  appreciation  and  develop- 
ment of  culture  are  largely  cooperative  in  character. 
An  individual  separated  from  his  kind  would  never 
acquire  a  language  or  produce  any  works  of  art.  Every 
writer,  artist,  and  scientist  must  use  the  products  of  his 
predecessors.  He  cannot  devise  anything  entirely  new, 
but  can  only  make  new  arrangements  and  slight  addi- 
tions to  what  has  already  been  produced.  Every  indi- 
vidual, when  thinking  and  constructing,  is  cooperating 
with  thousand  of  thinkers  and  artists  of  the  past  and 
the  present  and  perhaps  with  many  that  are  to  follow. 
Even  the  appreciation  of  cultural  products  is  largely 
cooperative.  The  enjoyment  of  music,  literature,  and 
art  is  greatly  increased  by  the  presence  of  others  who 
are  evincing  their  pleasure. 

Transmission,  exchange,  and  fusion  of  culture.  Cul- 
ture is  transmitted  to  others  partly  through  the  medium 
of  teaching  and  intercourse  and  partly  through  the  ma- 
terial products  of  culture,  such  as  books,  works  of  art, 
and  architecture. 

Language  is  one  of  the  most  important  means  of 
transmitting  culture.  Through  language  one  may  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  the  actions  of  persons  and  of  the 
characteristics  of  objects  that  he  has  no  opportunity  to 
observe  and  which  are  perhaps  distant  in  both  time  and 


CULTURAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  87 

space.  Through  this  medium  the  mental,  and  conse- 
quently the  cultural,  environment  of  a  people  is  im- 
mensely enlarged.  By  means  of  language,  much  of  the 
cultural  activity  of  preceding  ages  is  made  a  part  of 
the  cultural  life  of  to-day.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most 
important  means  for  the  exchange  of  culture  among  dif- 
ferent groups  of  people.  Especially  is  this  true  in  mod- 
em times  when  there  is  much  communication  and  a 
great  deal  of  translation.  The  development  of  a  world 
language  would  still  further  facilitate  this  interchange. 

In  more  primitive  times  this  exchange  was  brought 
about  largely  through  the  observation  of  the  customs 
of  other  tribes  and  the  imitation  of  useful  and  artistic 
objects.  Groups  of  people  that  were  at  war  with  each 
other  interchanged  to  a  less  extent  than  those  that 
engaged  in  friendly  trade.  The  same  utensils,  customs, 
and  stories  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  even 
among  savage  tribes.  To  determine  whether  this  is  due 
to  separate  invention,  to  exchange  through  contact  of 
group  with  group,  or  was  brought  about  through  the 
medium  of  travelers  has  been  an  important  problem  in 
scientific  investigation. 

Notwithstanding  this  interchange  among  different 
groups  of  people,  each  group  that  has  existed  for  a 
number  of  generations  has  a  culture  that  is  distinctive 
in  character.  Experts  are  able  to  tell  by  what  people 
and  when  a  specimen  of  art  or  literature  was  produced. 
This  shows  that  the  actions  and  objects  of  the  immedi- 
ate surroundings  have  the  most  important  effect  upon 
the  appreciation  and  production  of  cultural  material  in 
any  group  of  people. 

Culture  and  culture  material  are  never  equally  dis- 
tributed among  all  classes  of  the  same  group,  but  are 


88  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

distinctive  for  eacli  class.  The  general  tendency  in 
recent  times,  however,  toward  the  development  of  de- 
mocracy has  greatly  increased  the  diffusion  of  all  sorts 
of  culture  among  all  classes  of  people. 

Invention  and  culture.  Inventive  activity  is  more 
or  less  cultural  in  character,  especially  when  it  con- 
tributes to  the  pleasures  of  life  rather  than  to  actual 
necessities.  One  of  the  chief  values  of  inventions  and 
discoveries  is  in  facilitating  cultural  activity  and  in 
promoting  the  diffusion  of  culture.  The  invention  of 
printing  and  the  later  development  of  the  printing- 
press  have  had  a  most  profound  influence  in  these 
directions.  Inventions  of  methods  of  manufacturing 
and  reproducing  works  of  art  have  also  greatly  in- 
creased the  diffusion  of  artistic  products  among  the 
people.  In  many  of  the  humblest  homes  in  all  civilized 
countries  are  to  be  found  books  and  pictures,  equal  to 
those  found  in  palaces  centuries  ago. 

This  is  made  possible  not  only  by  new  methods  and 
machinery,  but  by  the  invention  and  organization  of 
means  of  transportation  and  communication.  Through 
the  telephone  and  the  telegraph,  aided  by  the  news  or- 
ganizations, the  printing-press,  and  the  railways,  every 
one  is  now  informed  of  the  actions  not  only  of  his  im- 
mediate neighbors,  but  of  people  in  distant  places  and 
foreign  countries.  He  is  thus  made  more  or  less  familiar 
with  the  art,  literature,  customs,  and  laws  of  other  peo- 
ple than  those  with  whom  he  is  immediately  associated. 

Facilities  for  travel  also  enable  even  the  moderately 
well-to-do  to  observe  the  cultural  activities  and  products 
of  people  in  other  places  and  countries.  Next  to  the 
newspaper,  no  invention  provides  greater  facilities  for 
the  diffusion  of  culture  than  the  moving-picture  films. 


CULTURAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  89 

Institutions  and  culture.  The  growth  of  industrial 
institutions  is  paralleled  by  the  development  of  those 
concerned  with  culture  in  its  various  forms.  Not  only 
are  there  scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  associations  in 
great  numbers  whose  object  is  the  promotion  of  cultural 
activity,  but  most  civilized  governments  have  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  such  work.  Institutions  are  espe- 
cially prominent  in  the  diffusion  of  culture  among  all 
classes  of  people.  Museums,  libraries,  theatres,  book- 
and  picture-publishing  establishments,  and  newspapers, 
nearly  all  institutional  in  character,  are  active  in  the 
dissemination  of  culture  and  cultural  products.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  institutions,  which  are  concerned  prima- 
rily with  the  adult  population,  there  is  a  great  network 
of  institutions  and  schools,  the  special  function  of  which 
is  to  transmit  culture  to  the  younger  generation.  "We 
see,  then,  that  institutions,  which  are  themselves  im- 
portant products  of  culture,  have  now  become  the  most 
effective  means  of  giving  cultural  training  to  young 
people  and  spreading  it  among  all  classes. 

Culture  and  life.  The  intellectual  and  aesthetic  needs 
of  man  are  almost  as  imperative  as  are  the  physicaL 
Many  men  prefer  to  go  hungry  rather  than  miss  an 
intellectual  or  an  artistic  treat.  Even  among  the  hum- 
blest people  are  found  those  who  ornament  themselves, 
their  homes,  and  their  yards,  and  are  interested  in 
music,  literature,  and  the  drama.  It  may  even  be  said 
that  the  struggle  among  human  beings  at  the  present 
time  is  not  so  much  for  the  necessities  of  life  as  for 
cultural  materials  and  opportunities.  Men  accumulate 
wealth,  not  that  they  may  be  better  fed  or  more  com- 
fortably protected  against  the  weather,  but  that  they 
may  have  a  variety  of  food  served  on  beautiful  dishes 


90  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

in  an  artistically  furnished  house  surrounded  by  hand- 
some grounds,  and  that  they  may  have  clothing  that  is 
fashionable  or  pleasing  to  their  tastes.  Men  work  also 
in  order  that  they  may  have  facilities  and  opportunities 
for  reading,^  seeing  works  of  art,  listening  to  music, 
observing  dramatic  performances,  and  learning  of  the 
progress  of  science  and  industry.  A  large  part  of 
the  life  of  civilized  man  is  concerned  with  the  enjoy- 
ment and  production  of  objects  of  culture  and  in  strug- 
gling to  get  the  opportunities  for  such  enjoyment.  It 
is  culture  that  makes  life  permanently  worth  while 
after  the  means  of  subsistence  have  been  obtained.  It 
must  be  recognized,  however,  that  culture  is  an  impor- 
tant means  of  social  enjoyment  and  of  obtaining  dis- 
tinction, hence  it  is  sought  for  other  reasons  than  for 
individual  enjoyment. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Enumerate  various  products  of  cultural  activity  that 
are  appreciated  mentally,  but  are  in  no  way  necessary 
to  physical  life. 

2.  Is  more  attention  usually  given  to  culture  in  old  or 
new  countries  ?   Why  ? 

3.  Discuss  the  relative  prominence  of  nature  and  people  in 
stimulating  natural  production  and  cultural  appreciation. 

4.  Classify  the  various  forms  of  culture  as  to  the  degree 
of  cooperation  they  require. 

6.  In  visiting  a  museum  or  an  art  gallery  can  you  tell 
what  nation  produced  the  things  in  each  room  without 
looking  at  the  labels,  or  in  what  age  they  were  pro- 
duced ?  "Why  are  the  peculiarities  more  distinctive  in 
some  cases  than  in  others  ? 

6.  Study  the  development  of  some  tool,  machine,  language, 
system  of  music,  or  type  of  literature. 


CULTURAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  91 

7.  What  coantries  have  most  influenced  the  culture  of  the 
United  States  ?   Why  ? 

8.  Enumerate  the  cultural  objects  in  some  home  and  note 
how  many  of  them  are  there  because  of  modern  inven- 
tions. 

9.  Discuss  which  have  had  the  most  influence  upon  the 
culture  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  travelers 
who  have  visited  other  countries,  or  visitors  and  immi- 
grants from  other  countries  ?    Why  ? 

10.  Which  are  playing  the  larger  part  in  giving  us  the 
culture  of  other  peoples,  words  or  pictures  ? 

11.  Report  upon  the  development  of  some  cultural  institu- 
tions, such  as  libraries,  moving  pictures,  museums, 
newspapers. 

12.  Discuss  cultural  desires  as  stimuli  to  wealth-getting  as 
compared  with  nutritive  needs  as  such  stimuli. 

13.  Study  statistics  and  estimate  what  proportion  of  the 
wealth  produced  each  year  is  to  satisfy  cultural  needs. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

Strength  of  social  needs.  Man  has  so  long  lived  in 
companionship  with  others  that  his  nature  demands 
social  intercourse.  He  cannot  be  satisfied  without  be- 
ing with  other  persons  and  sharing  his  mental  life  with 
them.  Even  art  and  literature  lose  their  charm  without 
some  one  with  whom  to  enjoy  them  and  religion  gains 
added  power  when  one  joins  with  others  in  its  rites. 

Social  intercourse  is  not  primarily  a  distinct  form  of 
activity,  but  is  an  incidental  though  very  important 
factor  in  all  work  and  play.  The  desire  for  social  com- 
panionship leads  to  the  forming  of  homes  and  to  com- 
munity life.  One  of  the  first  questions  asked  in  seeking 
a  new  location  is  regarding  the  people  with  whom  one 
will  associate.  The  same  is  true  in  entering  various 
vocations  and  forming  connections  with, institutions  of 
all  sorts. 

Human  beings  form  the  principal  stimulus  to  effort 
and  to  ambitions.  The  desire  to  be  treated  in  certain 
ways  and  to  be  looked  upon  with  approval  by  certain 
classes  of  people  mingles  with  every  end  toward  which 
human  beings  strive  and  probably  furnishes  the  strong- 
est motive  to  action. 

Social  activities  always  imply  a  certain  amount  of 
likemindedness  in  those  who  associate,  but  social  inter- 
course is  the  most  satisfactory  and  stimulating  when 
there  are  also  differences  in  the  persons  associating. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  each  individual  has  more 


SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND   ACTIVITIES  93 

or  less  association  with  those  older,  those  younger,  and 
those  of  his  own  age,  of  his  own  and  of  the  opposite 
sex.  Some  of  this  association  is  naturally  and  normally 
as  a  member  of  a  group  in  which  all  these  classes  of 
persons  are  represented. 

Specialization  of  social  intercourse.  Under  more 
primitive  conditions  this  association  of  all  classes  and 
ages  was  more  prominent  in  the  family  and  in  the  com- 
munity than  it  is  to-day.  The  members  of  the  family 
were  together  much  of  the  time  and  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  played  and  worked  together.  In  the  com- 
munity also  each  individual  was  generally  well  ac- 
quainted with  others  of  the  community,  both  old  and 
young. 

Formerly  people  who  lived  near  each  other  often  ex- 
changed products  and  labor,  borrowed,  brought  things 
from  the  market  for  each  other,  and  helped  neighbors 
in  cases  of  festivity,  sickness,  or  death.  Now  necessaries 
are  bought  of  dealers  and  delivered  by  them,  the  near- 
ness of  the  market  makes  borrowing  unnecessary,  and 
in  cases  of  need,  specialists,  such  as  caterers,  doctors, 
nurses,  and  undertakers  are  hired,  and  neighbors  can 
do  little  or  nothing.  In  this  way  the  natural  means  of 
establishing  social  relations  with  those  around  one  are 
diminished.  In  addition  to  this,  one  cannot  possibly 
know  all  the  people  in  a  city,  or  even  in  one's  own 
neighborhood,  and  though  the  desire  for  social  inter- 
course is  still  as  strong  as  ever,  it  is  satisfied  by  inter- 
course not  with  persons  in  one's  own  locality,  but  with 
persons  that  one  meets  in  his  work  and  recreations  and 
with  those  who  are  members  of  the  same  organizations 
to  which  he  belongs. 

Specialization  in  the  industri^^l  and  other  activities, 


94  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

resulting  from  the  invention  of  machinery  has  also 
greatly  changed  social  conditions.  The  different  mem- 
bers of  the  family  are  together  much  less  than  formerly. 
They  have  fewer  common  interests  and  in  many  in- 
stances rarely  or  never  do  the  same  thing  together.  The 
father  goes  early  in  the  morning  to  his  work,  of  the 
nature  of  which  his  children  know  little  or  nothing, 
while  they  join  a  group  of  children  of  their  own  age 
who  are  often  entirely  unknown  to  the  parents.  Fre- 
quently the  father  and  mother  know  as  little  of  what 
their  children  are  doing  in  the  school  as  the  children 
do  of  their  parents'  work.  In  a  large  proportion  of  cases 
there  is  not  more  than  one  meal  a  day  eaten  in  common 
by  the  whole  family,  and  sometimes  not  even  that.  In 
the  leisure  time  of  the  evening  each  member  of  the 
family  finds  amusement  by  himself  or  in  company  with 
others  of  his  own  age.  Under  such  conditions  the  social 
activities  of  the  family  are  very  limited  compared  with 
what  they  once  were. 

In  more  primitive  times,  as  in  the  smaller  communi- 
ties to-day,  all  the  social  relations  incidental  to  work 
and  play  and  to  public  and  to  many  private  affairs  were 
with  the  same  group  of  people.  In  modern  city  life  each 
kind  of  incidental,  social  relationship  is  largely  with  a 
different  class  of  persons :  the  people  whom  one  meets 
in  connection  with  his  work  are  not  likely  to  be  the  same 
as  those  he  meets  in  church,  in  his  lodge,  or  at  places 
of  amusement.  Each  group  of  persons  is  known  in  only 
one  aspect  of  the  lives  of  those  comprising  it,  and  each 
calls  for  a  different  phase  of  one's  social  nature. 

Along  with  this  specialization  of  social  intercourse 
there  has  been  a  great  broadening  of  the  field  of  one's 
social  relations  and  a  change  in  the  means  by  which 


SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  95 

each  knows  and  to  some  extent  shares  the  life  of  others. 
Formerly  the  chief  means  of  knowing  others  and  their 
affairs  was  by  casual  meetings  and  by  hearsay.  Now 
we  know  a  much  larger  number  of  people  through  the 
medium  of  the  newspaper.  This  performs  the  function 
of  the  village  gossip  not  only  in  the  local  community, 
but  in  the  state  and  nation.  Through  its  medium  the 
actions  of  prominent  people  are  made  familiar  to  every 
one,  and  public  sentiment,  corresponding  to  conununity 
sentiment,  is  given  expression. 

In  the  cities  conditions  have  also  changed  in  com- 
munity life.  The  persons  who  live  near  each  other  are 
engaged  in  a  variety  of  work,  or  if  in  the  same  occupa- 
tion do  not  necessarily  carry  it  on  in  association  with 
the  others.  People  may  inhabit  the  same  block  for  years 
and  never  exchange  a  word  or  learn  one  another's  names. 

This  decrease  in  natural,  incidental,  social  intercourse 
has  not  diminished  the  need  or  desire  for  such  inter- 
course so  much  as  it  has  changed  its  form.  It  has 
brought  about  a  great  deal  more  association  between 
those  of  the  same  age.  The  children  of  different  ages 
and  the  parents  have  each  associates  of  their  own  class. 

It  has  also  led  to  the  formation  of  many  societies  for 
social  purposes  or  for  the  pursuit  of  a  common  interest, 
such  as  bird  study,  civics,  art,  or  music,  and  to  a  great 
increase  in  the  social  activities  of  other  societies.  In 
general  these  societies,  however,  do  not  very  frequently 
bring  together  men,  women,  and  children,  but  provide 
only  for  special  groups  of  each.  So  nvmierous  have  these 
societies,  lodges,  and  clubs  become  that  many  persons 
spend  very  little  even  of  their  leisure  time  at  home.  In 
this  way  social  life  is  very  completely  specialized.  Any 
one  who  moves  into  a  city  now  finds  it  almost  impos- 


96  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

sible  to  become  acquainted  except  through  some  insti- 
tution, such  as  a  church,  a  club,  or  a  lodge,  or  some 
cultural,  recreational,  or  civic  society. 

Institutions  and  social  life.  In  most  communities, 
rural  as  well  as  village  and  city,  there  is  frequently 
nothing  of  sufficient  interest  to  bring  about  a  com- 
munity feeling  or  common  action.  Special  classes  of 
people  are  interested  in  special  institutions,  sometimes 
in  a  good  many  of  them,  but  there  is  usually  less  com- 
munity interest  than  there  is  of  state  or  national  pa- 
triotism and  interest.  State  and  national  elections,  with 
the  public  questions  involved  and  the  interests  at  stake, 
have  generally  been  much  more  prominent  than  local 
civic  affairs.  Recently,  however,  societies  have  been 
formed  and  a  great  deal  of  work  has  been  done  by  var 
rious  individuals  and  organizations  to  improve  the  com- 
munity and  to  develop  local  civic  pride.  These  have  a 
good  deal  of  influence,  especially  when  a  large  number 
of  persons  are  induced  to  help  in  doing  something  for 
the  community,  such  as  cleaning  it  up,  beautifying  it, 
or  developing  a  recreation  center. 

Experience  shows  that  gatherings  and  societies  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  social  intercourse  are  not  successful. 
Something  which  all  may  do  in  common  is  necessary 
to  make  the  community  sufficiently  likeminded  and  to 
bring  out  interesting  and  effective  social  reactions  of 
one  to  another.  Some  common  act,  such  as  playing, 
working,  or  eating,  is  necessary  unless  there  is  some 
definite  purpose  to  be  accomplished  by  discussion  and 
the  planning  of  united  effort.  It  may  be  said  that  one 
of  the  most  important  things  accomplished  by  all  sorts 
of  organizations  is  the  acquaintanceship  and  social  ac- 
tivity that  incidentally  result,  but  that  any  society  that 


SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  97 

attempts  to  make  social  activity  the  only  or  the  chief  aim 
is  likely  to  fail  of  its  purpose. 

Under  present  conditions  it  seems  that  the  incidental 
social  activity  of  home,  community,  and  business  is  far 
less  complete  and  varied  than  is  demanded  by  the  good 
of  the  individual  and  of  the  community.  The  numerous 
clubs  of  to-day  are  not  the  cause  but  the  result  of  these 
conditions.  The  remedy  lies  not  in  condemning  these 
clubs  as  destructive  of  family  life,  but  in  improving 
them,  eliminating  those  which  give  the  least  valuable 
forms  of  social  intercourse  and  forming  more  of  the 
kind  that  brings  together  all  members  of  a  community 
and  promotes  unity  of  action  and  interest. 

Social  classes.  Specialization  in  work  and  in  play 
and  amusements,  together  with  institutional  develop- 
ment, makes  specialization  in  social  intercourse  inevi- 
table. In  so  far  as  successive  generations  follow  similar 
occupations  and  keep  the  same  financial  and  educational 
standing,  the  inevitable  result  is  the  development  of 
distinct  and  permanent  social  classes,  each  of  which  has 
no  social  intercourse  with  the  others.  This  is  a  condi- 
tion directly  opposed  to  democracy.  Even  an  employer 
capitalist  who  has  risen  from  the  ranks  soon  loses  social 
touch  with  the  laboring  classes  and  loses  the  power  to 
look  at  things  from  their  point  of  view.  Much  more  is 
a  descendant  of  generations  of  capitalists  differentiated 
from  a  descendant  of  generations  of  laborers.  Much  of 
the  friction  between  employer  and  employees  is  due  to 
these  facts,  and  one  of  the  best  remedies  is  being  found 
in  the  meeting  of  representatives  of  both  classes,  where 
they  can  talk  freely,  get  acquainted  with  one  another 
and  learn  to  appreciate  the  different  points  of  view  pre- 
sented. Similar  meetings  of  educated  and  uneducated 


96  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  of  rich  and  poor,  in  which  all  are  on  an  equality  as 
regards  the  question  at  issue,  are  of  the  greatest  value 
in  a  democracy.  The  public  schools  are  doing  much  to 
promote  democracy  in  the  young  and  to  develop  in  their 
parents  common  interests.  They  are,  therefore,  the  most 
promising  social  centers  of  to-day. 

Social  rules.  Whenever  people  associate,  customs 
and  institutions  with  rules  are  soon  developed  as  guides 
for  the  individual  in  his  social  intercourse  with  others. 
The  existence  of  distinct  classes  of  persons  favors  this 
tendency.  A  large  part  of  oriental  education  consists 
of  training  in  the  proper  ways  of  acting  toward  the  va- 
rious classes.  In  Japan  such  action  is  developed  into  a 
fine  art,  and  the  grace  with  which  a  Japanese  lady  per- 
forms the  social  act  of  serving  tea  has  been  attained  by 
at  least  a  year  of  special  training  to  prepare  her  for  that 
important  function. 

Among  western  nations,  especially  as  they  become 
more  democratic,  there  is  less  occasion  for  elaborate 
rules  of  social  intercourse  between  people,  since  all  are 
of  the  same  rank.  The  time-honored  distinctions  be- 
tween men  and  women  and  between  youth  and  age  tend 
also  to  disappear.  There  still  remain  the  ordinary  con- 
ventions as  to  dress  and  conduct,  but  the  finer  courtesies 
of  life  lack  support ;  consequently  Americans  are  far  less 
polite  than  are  the  people  of  aristocratic  and  oriental 
countries. 

In  place  of  rules  of  action  for  distinct  social  classes 
are  developed  certain  common  rules  for  all,  such  as 
taking  one's  turn  in  line,  and  special  rules  followed  in 
different  sorts  of  institutions  and  assemblies.  Just  as 
in  older  society  what  is  fitting  in  conduct  toward  one 
class  of  persons  may  not  be  permitted  toward  another, 


SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  99 

so  tlie  courtesies  of  a  baseball  fan  are  not  permissible 
when  he  is  in  a  church,  or  those  of  a  bather  at  the  beach 
when  in  a  drawing-room  or  in  a  public  library. 

A  large  part  of  the  regulation  of  social  intercourse  in 
America  is  through  the  institutions  or  societies  with 
which  one  is  connected.  Under  the  influence  of  each 
institution  we  regulate  our  actions  in  relation  to  others 
according  to  the  rules  and  established  customs  of  that 
institution.  The  fine  art  of  social  intercourse  now  con- 
sists not  so  much  in  behavior  toward  persons  of  a  certain 
class  as  of  doing  what  is  fitting  between  equals  who  are 
members  or  ofiicers  of  certain  institutions  or  engaged 
in  a  special  form  of  activity.  Whether  this  kind  of 
social  regulation  can  ever  reach  as  high  a  state  of  de- 
velopment as  the  older  remains  to  be  seen.  Already,  to 
be  a  good  loser  in  athletics  is  an  obligation  more  strongly 
enforced  than  that  of  making  a  polite  bow,  and  it  is 
probably  more  necessary  where  majorities  pm&t  rule. 

EXERCISES 

1.  If  one  had  no  association  with  people,  either  directly  or 
through  the  medium  of  language,  could  he  maintain  a 
mental  life  above  that  of  animals  ? 

2.  To  what  extent  are  cultural  products  purchased  for 
one's  own  pleasure  and  to  what  extent  for  securing  social 
standing  and  approval? 

3.  Disciiss  the  part  that  likeness  and  difference  in  race, 
class,  age,  sex,  education,  and  temperament  play  in  the 
social  intercourse  of  nations,  classes,  and  individuals. 

4.  Each  student  should  report  as  to  the  acquaintances  of 
different  members  of  the  family  so  as  to  show  to  what 
extent  they  are  associated  with  different  groups  of 
people. 

5.  Report  as  to  the  part  proximity  of  residence  and  being 


100  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

connected  with  institutions  has  had  in  promoting  ac- 
quaintance. This  may  be  done  by  making  a  list  of  say 
fifty  acquaintances  and  stating  the  medium  through 
which  the  acquaintance  was  chiefly  promoted. 

6.  What  are  the  chief  influences  in  this  country  that  are 
developing  social  classes  and  what  are  promoting  ac- 
quaintance between  classes  ?  Compare  various  organiza- 
tions as  to  their  influence  in  this  respect. 

7.  Discuss  the  part  that  division  into  classes  has  upon  the 
prominence  of  social  conventions  in  the  life  of  any  peo- 
ple, comparing  such  countries  as  India,  England,  and 
the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  X 
MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS   NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES 

Relation  of  morals,  religion,  and  custom.  Moral  and 
religious  needs  are  inherent  in  the  social  nature  of  man 
and  are  closely  related  to  each  other.  They  depend  upon 
the  fact  that  men  feel  the  need  of  controlling  and  regu- 
lating their  action  by  some  influence  outside  of  them- 
selves. In  the  case  of  moral  action  this  influence  is  sup- 
plied by  the  conduct  and  ideas  of  the  other  members  of 
the  group,  or  if  they  are  not  present,  by  memories  of 
how  they  have  acted  under  similar  circumstances. 

In  the  case  of  religion,  it  is  the  idea  that  the  spirit 
of  some  ancestor  or  a  power  of  nature  or  a  deity  ap- 
proves or  disapproves  of  certain  kinds  of  conduct.  These 
two  influences  frequently  combine,  the  conduct  being 
regulated  and  the  customs  of  the  group  being  enforced 
more  effectively  by  belief  in  the  spirits  or  gods  than  by 
the  mere  example  and  opinion  of  persons.  On  the  other 
hand,  faith  in  the  spirits  or  gods  is  derived  from  the 
example  and  opinions  of  the  group  to  which  one  belongs, 
since  the  ideas  and  customs  regulating  the  conduct  of 
individuals  are  generally  impressed  upon  the  younger 
members  of  the  group  by  older  persons  and  by  leaders. 
The  longer  any  given  custom  has  prevailed  and  the 
more  it  is  supported  by  leaders  living  and  dead  and  by 
religious  beliefs,  the  stronger  will  be  its  controlling  and 
regulating  influence.  Warrior  leaders  and  medicine 
men  have  had  much  to  do  with  shaping  the  moral  and 
religious  practices  of  every  group  of  people. 


102  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

In  the  regulation  of  conduct,  both  economic  and  moral, 
there  is  always  a  peculiar  mingling  of  more  or  less  con- 
scious wisdom  as  to  what  is  the  most  useful  form  of 
action  for  the  group  and  superstitious  and  religious  be- 
liefs and  ceremonies  handed  down  by  custom  and  tra- 
dition. This  is  shown  in  all  phases  of  both  work  and 
play  and  in  the  conduct  of  both  savage  and  civilized 
peoples.  In  hunting,  in  cultivating  the  soil,  in  caring 
for  the  dead,  in  war,  and  in  games,  what  must  or  must 
not  be  done  is  decided  partly  in  accordance  with  true 
knowledge  and  partly  in  accordance  with  customs  and 
traditions  that  have  no  justification  in  facts.  The  Indians 
of  the  western  desert  regions  developed  a  type  of  com 
better  suited  for  growth  in  those  regions  than  any  that 
has  been  produced  by  modern  experimenters  in  agri- 
culture. Their  methods  of  selecting,  preserving,  and 
planting  seed  were,  however,  apparently  regulated  more 
by  superstitious  and  religious  ideas  than  they  were  by 
knowledge  of  cause  and  efifect. 

The  Indians  of  Mexico,  in  their  favorite  game  of 
long-distance  racing  have  developed  a  system  of  dieting 
and  physical  training  that  enables  their  athletes  to  accom- 
plish most  remarkable  results  in  the  way  of  speed  and  en- 
durance. The  directions  as  to  what  the  contestant  must 
do  before  and  during  the  race  in  order  that  he  may  win 
are  based  on  a  pecidiar  mingling  of  foolish  superstitions 
and  of  sensible  practices  in  full  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  hygiene. 

Our  own  ideas  at  the  present  day  as  to  what  animals 
are  suitable  for  food  and  what  are  not  are  influenced  in 
a  similar  way.  It  is  tradition  rather  than  scientific 
knowledge  that  causes  the  mouth  to  water  at  the  thought 
of  beefsteak  and  the  stomach  to  revolt  at  the  thought 
of  horse  or  dog  steak  or  cat  stew. 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  103 

Conditions  and  morals.  It  may  be  accepted  as  gen- 
erally true  that  some  of  the  rules  regulating  conduct  in 
relation  to  others,  as  well  as  in  relation  to  work  and 
play,  are  founded  upon  what  is  for  the  advantage  of 
the  group  or  upon  what  was  advantageous  or  even  abso- 
lutely necessary  at  one  time  in  its  history.  Some  very 
diverse  moral  codes  may  thus  be  justified  by  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  life  under  which  different  groups  existed. 

It  would  seem  at  first  that  there  could  be  no  justifi- 
cation in  a  code  that  demands  that  a  son  shall  kill  his 
parents  as  soon  as  they  become  helpless.  We  must  con- 
sider, however,  that  the  people  who  recognized  this  moral 
code  were  wandering  people  living  under  very  hard 
conditions,  so  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  group  to 
survive  if  they  were  burdened  with  a  great  number  of 
helpless  individuals.  To  leave  them  behind  meant  tor- 
ture from  hunger  and  suffering  or  death  from  wild 
beasts  or  enemies.  Hence  the  good  of  the  group  and 
kindness  to  the  individual  demanded  that  they  should 
be  put  out  of  the  way,  and  this  was  regarded  as  pecul- 
iarly the  son's  duty. 

All  groups  of  people  have  some  sort  of  code  to  which 
all  members  of  the  group  must  conform.  In  every  case 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  some  of  its  rules  enjoin  those  ac- 
tions which,  under  the  conditions  in  which  the  group 
lives,  are  most  favorable  to  its  preservation  and  welfare. 
Other  portions  of  the  code  as  surely  represent  actions 
that  are  not  now,  and  perhaps  never  have  been,  of  any 
real  utility  to  the  group  as  a  whole.  \They  have  origi- 
nated as  chance  superstitions,  or  have  been  devised  by 
leaders  for  their  own  advantage,  and  then  perpetuated 
by  custom  and  their  supposed  sacred  character.  Some 
of  them  represent  actions  that  are  of  use  to  no  one, 


104  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

while  others  present  standards  of  conduct  which  are 
favorable  to  certain  classes  of  individuals  only,  such  as 
rules  regarding  control  of  slaves,  the  divine  right  of 
kings,  or  the  sacredness  of  priests. 

Morals  and  punishment.  However  founded,  moral 
codes  are  powerful  in  controlling  and  regulating  the 
conduct  and  the  ideals  of  the  individuals  of  the  group 
in  proportion  as  they  seem  to  represent  the  sentiments 
and  practices  of  all  its  members  or  of  its  leaders. 

Under  special  circumstances,  as  in  the  case  of  certain 
isolated  tribes  in  Africa,  custom  alone,  without  teach- 
ing or  punishment,  may  quite  effectively  regulate  the 
conduct  of  the  group.  In  certain  villages,  where  there 
is  no  relation  with  the  people  of  other  villages  except 
that  of  warfare,  all  members  of  the  village  have  the 
same  customs,  which  are  acquired  through  imitation  by 
the  younger  people  and  perpetuated  generation  after 
generation.  No  one  uses  incorrect  speech  because  he  has 
never  heard  any  language  different  from  that  usual  in 
the  village.  The  same  is  largely  true  of  conduct.  Pun- 
ishment in  order  to  make  children  or  adults  conform  to 
the  customs  of  the  group  is  unknown  so  far  as  could 
be  determined  by  a  missionary  living  among  them  for 
seven  years.  Some  instances  of  scolding  were  observed, 
but  these  were  expressions  of  irritation  rather  than 
punishments  intended  to  change  conduct. 

Among  people  of  more  intelligence  and  initiative  and 
with  stricter  regulations,  or  who,  through  association 
with  other  groups,  observe  conduct  and  customs  differ- 
ing from  their  own,  it  is  impossible  to  regulate  the  con- 
duct of  individuals  without  some  form  of  punishment 
direct  or  indirect. 

Among  intelligent  people  who  consider  the  future 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  105 

as  well  as  immediate  results  of  action,  the  moral  code 
always  means  a  good  deal  of  repression  of  instinctive 
impulses.  Hence  punishments  must  be  inflicted  or  re- 
wards offered  to  induce  individuals  to  exercise  restraint 
in  accordance  with  that  code.  This  is  especially  the  case 
where  the  pleasures  of  the  individual  and  the  good  of 
the  group  seem  to  come  in  conflict  and  in  cases  where 
cooperative  action  can  be  successful  only  when  each  in- 
dividual conforms  to  certain  directions  and  rules.  Such 
regulations  often  originate  in  time  of  war  and  are  then 
strictly  enforced  by  the  leaders. 

Every  social  group  must  protect  itself  against  an  in- 
dividual whose  act  will  in  itself  bring  harm  to  the 
group,  either  directly  or  because,  as  supposed,  some 
spirit  will  visit  punishment  upon  the  group  if  he  is  dis- 
pleased by  the  action  of  one  of  its  individuals.  Among 
peoples  where  the  family  and  the  larger  community 
group  are  combined  in  the  patriarchal  tribe,  moral  con- 
duct is  most  clearly  regulated  by  considerations  of  group 
welfare.  An  individual  is  forbidden  to  interfere  with 
the  persons  or  property  not  only  of  members  of  his  own 
tribe,  but  of  members  of  other  tribes.  The  leaders  are 
strict  in  prohibiting  such  acts  because  they  know  that 
their  whole  tribe  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  action 
of  one  of  its  members.  Any  member  of  the  tribe  is 
liable  to  loss  of  life  and  property  because  of  the  action 
of  any  other  member. 

The  group  is  always  stronger  than  the  individual, 
and  through  the  older  men  and  the  leaders  the  younger 
and  more  independent  individuals  have  their  actions 
controlled  and  regulated.  Such  regulations  constitute 
the  moral  code  of  the  group  and  iJtimately  the  con- 
science of  the  individual. 


106  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Group  loyalty.  The  primary  basis  of  all  moral  codes 
is  that  the  conduct  of  the  individual  must  be  regulated 
by  the  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  group  to  which  he 
belongs. 

Among  oriental  nations  generally  the  individual  re- 
ceives little  consideration.  His  duty  is  to  conform  to 
the  ideas  and  customs  of  his  people  and  of  his  ancestors, 
regardless  of  what  his  own  feelings  may  be.  Among 
occidental  peoples  the  feelings  and  the  welfare  of  the 
individual  receive  much  more  consideration,  yet  in  the 
final  decision,  if  there  seems  to  be  a  conflict  between 
the  individual  and  the  group  to  which  he  belongs,  the 
moral  code  of  every  people  requires  that  the  will  of  the 
group  rather  than  of  the  individual  shall  prevail. 

This  constitutes  the  burden  of  most  moral  teaching, 
and  every  person  learns  sooner  or  later  that  it  is  for 
his  own  good  to  conform  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
accepted  customs  and  regulations  of  his  group.  He  finds 
that  the  way  in  which  he  acts  inevitably  determines  the 
way  others  act  toward  him,  and  that  he  can  gain  his 
own  ends  only  by  recognizing  the  rules  of  conduct  fol- 
lowed by  those  about  him.  This  is  especially  impressed 
upon  boys  who  engage  in  games  and  find  themselves 
shut  out  if  they  do  not  conform  to  the  rules,  and  who 
see  that  failure  to  conform  by  others  interferes  with  the 
pleasures  of  the  game.  In  work  and  cooperative  activ- 
ity of  all  kinds  each  individual  sees  that  he  must  regu- 
late his  own  conduct  by  the  customary  action  of  his 
fellows. 

Where  the  group  to  which  the  individual  belongs 
comes  in  conflict  with  another  group,  the  chief  deter- 
mining influence  upon  the  conscience  of  the  individual 
is  the  idea  of  loyalty  to  his  own.  He  deems  it  his  duty 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  107 

to  act  for  the  injury  of  other  groups  if  the  customs  or 
the  good  of  his  own  group  demand  that  he  shall  do  so. 
In  more  primitive  times  no  moral  obligation  was  recog- 
nized except  to  one's  own  people.  Strangers  were  killed 
or  maltreated  without  compunction. 

War  has  always  emphasized  this  attitude.  It  not 
only  justifies  doing  to  the  members  of  another  tribe  or 
nation  what  would  be  regarded  as  a  crime  if  the  indi- 
vidual injured  were  a  member  of  one's  own  group,  but 
it  has  encouraged  such  actions  and  has  even  made  them 
models  of  the  heroic.  To  deceive,  kill,  and  even  torture 
an  enemy  is  the  act  of  a  hero.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  good  of  the  group  is  supposed  to  demand  that 
an  opposing  group  shall  be  injured  as  much  as  possible, 
and  that  the  action  of  the  individual  who  risks  his  own 
life,  or  in  any  way  sacrifices  himself  to  that  end,  is 
noble.  The  idea  of  loyalty  to  one's  own  is  so  funda- 
mental in  all  moral  codes  that  it  cannot  be  dispensed 
with  on  the  playgroimd,  in  business,  or  in  the  relation 
of  nations  to  one  another. 

Social  organizations  of  all  kinds  emphasize  this  ideal, 
that  one  must  be  true  to  his  nation,  his  family,  his  fra- 
ternity, his  imion,  his  church,  or  to  whatever  organiza- 
tion he  belongs.  His  own  interests  must  be  sacrificed 
for  the  good  of  the  group.  This  idea  has  been  and 
must  continue  to  be  fundamental  in  moral  codes  al- 
though it  may  not  completely  dominate. 

Enlargement  and  specialization  of  regulative  influ- 
ences. A  higher  type  of  morality  can  develop  only  by 
modification  in  ideas  as  to  what  constitutes  the  group 
to  which  one  belongs  and  to  which  one  must  be  loyal. 
As  civilization  progresses  each  individual  in  fact  and  in 
his  own  consciousness  becomes  a  member  of  a  larger 


108  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  larger  group,  until  the  time  may  come  when  he 
shall  recognize  that  all  human  beings,  living  and  dead 
and  those  yet  to  be  born,  belong  to  the  same  group,  the 
human  brotherhood.  This  fosters  the  feeling  that  one's 
deeds  should  be  worthy  of  one's  ancestors  and  enforces 
the  truth  that  the  act  of  each  individual  affects  more 
or  less  all  persons  now  living  and  those  to  follow. 
Actions  must,  then,  be  justified  not  only  to  neighbors, 
but  to  the  world  and  to  future  generations. 

This  increasing  consciousness  of  the  common  nature 
and  needs  of  all  human  beings  and  appreciation  of  the 
effects  of  one's  acts  upon  all  members  of  the  race,  as 
well  as  upon  the  small  group  among  whom  one  is  living, 
are  associated  with  considerable  specialization  in  loy- 
alty and  in  the  moral  rules  recognized  by  the  individ- 
ual. Formerly  one  knew  a  few  individuals  in  many 
relations  and  he  was  responsible  for  all  phases  of  his 
conduct  to  the  sentiments  of  this  small  group.  Now,  in 
cities  especially,  one  knows  many  groups  of  people,  each 
in  only  a  few  relations,  and  he  is  responsible  to  the  sen- 
timents of  each  group  separately. 

With  his  business  associates  he  must  conform  to  the 
rules  recognized  among  business  men.  In  his  club, 
which  may  consist  of  an  entirely  different  set  of  indi- 
viduals, he  must  regulate  his  conduct  according  to  the 
rules  and  sentiments  of  the  club.  The  same  is  true  of 
all  the  different  groups  of  people  with  whom  he  comes 
in  contact.  He  is  loyal  to  each  and  conforms  to  the 
rules  of  each  group  with  which  he  is  associated.  In  one 
group  he  may  have  the  fuU  support  of  his  companions 
in  acts  which,  if  known  to  other  groups  to  which  he  be- 
longs, would  be  severely  condemned. 

This  applies  especially  to  residents  of  large  cities, 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  109 

but  it  applies  even  more  to  persons  who  occasionally 
visit  large  cities,  where  they  meet  no  one  with  whom 
their  home  people  are  acquainted,  and  where  their  ac- 
tions are,  therefore,  largely  iminfluenced  by  what  their 
neighbors  may  say,  think,  or  do.  This  makes  it  possi- 
ble for  many  forms  of  vice  to  thrive  in  a  city  which 
would  receive  no  support  or  patronage  in  a  small  com- 
munity. 

Institutions  and  public  opinion  and  morals.  The 
change  from  personal  to  institutional  activity  also  has 
considerable  influence  upon  moral  conduct.  Every  in- 
stitution is  carried  on  according  to  certain  rules,  and 
conformity  to  these  means  a  great  deal  of  regulation  of 
conduct  for  those  connected  with  the  institution.  Some- 
times these  rules  refer  not  only  to  business,  but  also  to 
personal  conduct,  such  as  politeness  or  sobriety. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  feeling  toward  an  institution  is 
not  the  same  as  that  toward  an  individual.  Many  men 
will,  therefore,  be  much  more  inclined  to  deal  dishon- 
estly with  an  institution  than  with  a  person.  The  man 
who  would  not  think  of  cheating  any  one  out  of  money 
justly  due  him  will  take  every  possible  advantage  of 
a  railway,  an  insurance  company,  or  other  institution. 
This  is  largely  because  he  does  not  see  so  clearly  the 
effect  of  his  acts,  and  especially  because  his  friends  and 
the  persons  who  are  ultimately  wronged  do  not  know  of 
his  conduct  and  have  no  way  of  showing  their  disap- 
proval of  the  wrongdoer.  Many  grafters  of  public  funds 
are  strictly  honest  in  their  dealing  with  individuals,  in- 
cluding their  fellow  grafters. 

The  man  who  would  not  think  of  cheating  or  injur- 
ing his  poor  sick  neighbor  may  sell  worthless,  even 
injurious,  preparations   to   thousands   of   unfortunate 


no  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

strangers.  This  is  possible  because  lie  does  not  fully 
realize  the  results  that  come  from  his  business  and  be- 
cause no  one  that  he  knows,  or  to  whose  set  he  belongs, 
shows  any  disapproval  of  the  act.  The  farmer  who 
would  not  sell  defective  fruit  or  diseased  meat  to  his 
neighbor  may  send  them  away  and  sell  them  to  people 
he  does  not  know. 

Kapid  changes  have,  however,  been  taking  place,  and 
along  with  a  decrease  in  some  of  the  influences  favoring 
personal  moral  action  there  are  also  many  influences 
increasing  institutional  and  public  morality. 

Banks,  insurance  companies,  and  manufacturers  now 
take  more  pains  to  build  up  and  maintain  their  reputa- 
tion for  reliability  than  do  most  individuals.  They,  and 
also  public  service  corporations,  such  as  railways,  recog- 
nize their  responsibility,  not  only  to  their  employees  and 
stockholders,  but  to  the  general  public.  Standardization 
has  also  had  important  effects  because  false  claims  are 
easily  detected. 

An  increasing  knowledge  of  the  more  remote  results 
of  any  course  of  action  in  these  days  of  specialization 
and  exchange  of  products  between  people  who  have 
never  seen  each  other,  and  increasing  publicity  and  fix- 
ing of  responsibility  through  the  newspapers,  have  had 
important  effects. 

The  gossip  of  neighbors  in  a  small  community  exer- 
cises a  strong  restraining  influence  upon  every  member 
of  that  community.  In  a  similar  way  the  newspapers 
give  publicity  to  one's  acts  and  their  results,  and  this 
has  become  a  powerful  social  influence  upon  men  as  indi- 
viduals and  as  officials  of  the  government  and  of  other 
institutions. 

As  people  become  better  informed  regarding  the  re- 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  111 

suits  of  different  ways  of  carrying  on  business,  politics, 
and  institutions  of  all  kinds,  the  influences  impelling 
each  person  to  recognize  the  rights  and  pleasures  of  the 
public  become  greater  and  greater.  This  moral  responsi- 
bility is  recognized  in  law  as  well  as  in  public  sentiment, 
and  the  heads  of  institutions  now  conform  to  laws  and 
to  the  demands  of  the  public  in  ways  never  conceived 
of  by  those  of  a  generation  ago.  Manufacturers  and 
business  men  of  to-day  now  have  the  same  reasons  for 
being  honest  with  those  who  ultimately  use  their  goods 
as  did  men  who  exchanged  with  their  permanent  neigh- 
bors. They  know  that  they  cannot  continue  to  sell  their 
goods  unless  they  are  according  to  representation.  Any 
customer  who  purchases  a  standard  product  and  finds 
it  defective  is  encouraged  by  the  retail  dealer  and  the 
manufacturer  to  return  it  and  receive  in  its  place  a  new 
supply. 

At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  lying  was  the  most 
successful  mode  of  advertising,  but  now  those  who  do 
professional  advertising  for  firms  that  expect  to  con- 
tinue in  business,  insist  that  advertisements  must  be 
essentially  truthful  or  success  will  be  brief. 

Although  this  type  of  morality  has  recently  developed, 
yet  many  officials  conform  to  its  principles,  not  merely 
because  it  pays,  but  because  they  wish  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  all  persons  who  are  affected  by  their  public 
acts.  Only  the  more  intelligent  people,  however,  appre- 
ciate this  higher  type  of  morality,  and  it  still  remains 
true  that  in  many  places  a  politician,  whose  public  acts 
are  generally  injurious  to  the  people  of  his  city,  is  elected 
to  office  again  and  again  because  he  is  personally  kind 
to  the  voters  and  their  families  and  helps  them  in  trouble 
and  misfortune. 


112  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Utility  and  morals.  Along  with  these  changes  others 
of  considerable  importance  have  taken  place.  Formerly 
ideas  as  to  what  was  right  were  determined  very  largely 
by  custom  and  tradition  and  only  slightly  by  definite 
knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  natural  and  inevit- 
able results  of  certain  kinds  of  action. 

The  scientific  tendency  shown  in  other  lines  to  study 
cause  and  effect  has  had  its  influence  in  the  field  of 
morals.  More  and  more  are  actions  approved  as  right 
or  condemned  as  wrong  according  to  the  consequences 
that  follow,  and  more  and  more  is  the  moral  code  being 
based  upon  known  sociological  laws.  Young  people  and 
others  are  no  longer  satisfied  when  told  that  a  thing  is 
"Wrong  because  it  has  always  been  so  regarded.  They 
must  be  shown  just  how  and  why  it  is  wrong. 

In  many  respects  this  represents  a  distinct  advance, 
but  we  must  also  recognize  that  knowledge  not  backed 
by  instinctive  tendencies  does  not  have  strong  control- 
ling and  regulating  influence.  People  may  know  that 
certain  acts  are  injurious  to  themselves  and  to  others 
and  yet  not  be  restrained  from  them  as  effectively  as 
they  are  in  other  cases  where  instinct,  sentiment,  or 
custom  play  a  larger  part.  The  use  of  drugs  may  be 
condemned  by  the  mind  and  yet  practiced  because  of 
appetite,  fashion,  or  habit.  A  man  may  be  fully  con- 
vinced intellectually  that  it  is  unwise  or  even  wrong  to 
give  to  beggars  and  yet  his  instinctive  sympathy  may 
impel  him  to  do  so.  He  may  believe  that  there  is  no 
justification  in  the  welfare  of  society  for  the  giving-up 
of  their  lives  by  talented  individuals  in  order  that  some 
ignorant,  unimportant  women  may  be  saved,  yet  we 
still  honor  rather  than  condemn  the  man  who  makes 
such  a  sacrifice. 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  113 

The  modern  code  of  ethics  is  very  properly  founded 
to  an  increasing  extent,  upon  scientific  knowledge  of 
sociological  phenomena,  but  it  does  and  should  take 
into  account  not  merely  the  more  immediate  utilitarian 
results,  but  also  the  value  and  significance  of  fund*- 
mental  instincts  and  racial  ideals  in  human  conduct. 
To  preserve  the  lives  of  useless  human  beings  and  care 
for  them  may  not  be  justified  on  utilitarian  grounds,  yet 
sentiment  will  probably  maintain  the  practice.  Although 
science  may  and  should  more  and  more  determine  the 
moral  code,  yet  folk-ways  and  ideals  are  more  powerful 
in  controlling  strong  instinct  opposed  to  moral  codes 
than  scientific  knowledge  of  results,  and,  therefore, 
must  not  be  hastily  abandoned. 

Scientific  knowledge  and  religious  belief.  In  many 
respects  the  changes  regarding  religious  beliefs  and  ac- 
tivities have  been  greater  than  in  the  field  of  morals. 
Religion  has  always  been  associated  with  the  belief  in 
an  immaterial  world  of  powerful  beings  who  are  able 
to  exercise  a  potent  influence  upon  things  and  person8.JI 
This  belief  in  unknown  spirits  has  mingled  with  knowl- 
edge of  things  and  their  relations.  In  many  enterprises 
of  men  attempts  have  been  made  not  only  to  utilize 
knowledge  in  securing  desired  ends,  but  also  to  enlist 
the  favor  and  help  of  spiritual  powers.  Among  most 
primitive  peoples  the  beginning  of  all  important  acts, 
war,  seed-planting,  harvest,  etc.,  and  important  events, 
such  as  marriages,  births,  and  deaths,  are  associated  with 
religious  ceremonies  of  some  kind.  This  has  continued 
down  to  the  present  time,  but  now  exists  to  a  very  much 
less  extent  than  formerly. 

The  scientific  spirit,  which  seeks  a  material  cause  for 
every  event,  has  largely  taken  the  place  of  the  religious 


114  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

spirit  and  of  religious  exercises.  The  change  is  well 
illustrated  by  such  incidents  as  this :  Cotton  Mather, 
when  suffering  from  a  toothache,  decided  that  he  must 
make  a  careful  self-examination  to  discover  in  what  re- 
spect he  had  failed  in  his  duty  and  thus  had  caused  this 
affliction  to  be  sent  upon  him.  The  modern  minister 
would  never  think  of  doing  this,  but  would  go  to  a  den- 
tist and  ask  him  regarding  the  physical  cause  of  the 
pain  and  have  him  apply  the  necessary  means  for  re- 
moving it.  Men  no  longer  look  to  the  evil  acts  of  its 
inhabitants  for  the  cause  of  pestilence  in  a  city  but 
rather  to  its  water  supply,  its  sewerage  system,  or  its 
germ-bearing  insects. 

This  tendency  to  find  causes  and  apply  known  reme- 
dies extends  not  only  to  material  things  and  to  bodily 
conditions,  but  also  to  the  thoughts  and  acts  of  men. 
We  go  to  psychology  to  find  the  explanation  of  certain 
acts  and  states  of  mind  instead  of  supposing  them  to 
be  caused  by  some  evil  spirit.  This  does  not  mean  that 
scientific  knowledge  leaves  no  place  for  religious  beliefs, 
but  merely  that  it  has  taken  the  place  of  many  old  re- 
ligious beliefs  and  consequently  gives  religion  a  differ- 
ent and  less  conspicuous  place  in  modern  life. 

These  changes  are  important,  not  so  much  in  the 
effect  that  they  have  had  upon  the  foundations  of  re- 
ligious beliefs  and  practice  of  the  deeper  thinkers,  as  in 
their  effects  upon  the  beliefs  and  especially  the  prac- 
tices of  the  common  people.  Those  who  study  deeply 
into  the  phenomena  of  nature,  trying  to  search  out  ulti- 
mate causes,  come  to  things  that  are  unexplainable  by 
science,  just  as  their  more  ignorant  predecessors  found 
themselves  unable  to  explain  by  anything  they  knew 
the  common  events  of  nature.  The  ancients  often  per- 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  116 

sonified  forces  of  nature  as  gods,  while  by  the  modern 
believer  they  may  still  be  regarded  as  expressions  of 
God's  unchanging  will  which  man  may  come  to  know 
through  increased  knowledge  of  the  invariable  working 
of  these  forces. 

To  others,  however,  who  have  not  gone  so  deeply  into 
the  question,  it  seems,  as  one  mystery  after  another  is 
explained  by  science,  that  all  things  may  thus  be  ex- 
plained and  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  supposing  the 
existence  of  any  spiritual  power  or  for  invoking  its  aid. 
The  development  of  machinery,  the  results  of  whose 
wonderful  working  may  be  seen  by  every  one,  but  whose 
details  are  understood  by  but  a  few,  serves  to  increase 
faith  in  material  causes  and  to  divert  attention  from 
spiritual  forces. 

Religious  observances  decreasing.  This  change  in 
intellectual  attitude  is  associated  with  even  more  im- 
portant changes  in  conduct.  Religious  ceremonies  play 
a  much  smaller  part  in  the  life  of  people  to-day  than 
was  formerly  the  case.  Where  they  are  continued  it  is 
largely  as  a  part  of  special  religious  exercises  and  not 
so  much  in  connection  with  all  the  important  events  of 
life.  Religious  ceremonies  are  much  less  prominent  in 
connection  with  death,  marriages,  and  public  events  of 
all  kinds.  In  other  words,  people  are  not  so  frequently 
engaged  in  acts  which  recognize  spiritual  forces  as  con- 
cerned with  human  affairs. 

This  has  a  more  important  influence  than  lack  of 
thought  or  belief  regarding  such  forces.  Nothing  so 
makes  any  belief  a  part  of  one's  self  as  joining  with 
others  in  acting  as  if  it  were  true.  Young  people  of  to- 
day do  not  so  frequently  see  religious  ceremonials  and 
do  not  themselves  take  part  in  them  so  much  as  for- 


116  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

merly.  Hence  it  is  inevitable  that  religion  should  play 
a  smaller  part  in  their  life,  conduct,  and  belief  than  it 
did  in  the  lives  of  preceding  generations.  This  decrease 
in  the  influences  reflecting  religious  beliefs  and  prac- 
tices is  made  still  greater  by  the  growing  tendency  to 
separate  religion  and  morals  and  to  develop  a  scientific 
conception  of  moral  codes. 

Religion  still  powerful.  Notwithstanding  these 
changes  modifying  religious  beliefs  and  decreasing  re- 
ligious practices,  it  still  remains  true  that  religious  be- 
liefs exert  a  powerful  influence  even  upon  those  who 
profess  to  be  unbelievers.  There  never  has  been  and 
probably  never  will  be  any  group  of  people  among  whom 
religion  in  some  form  ia  not  an  important  factor  in  regu- 
lating and  controlling  action.  The  superstitions  con- 
nected with  religion  have  declined  so  that  it  now  has 
less  influence  upon  thought  and  action  in  the  minor 
aiFairs  of  life,  yet  the  best  of  religion  has  been  em- 
bodied in  our  social  and  moral  ideas  and  still  controls 
beliefs  and  conduct  to  a  large  extent. 

In  our  own  country,  although  there  is  supposed  to  be 
complete  separation  of  church  and  state,  there  is  still 
official  recognition  of  religion  in  the  opening  of  assem- 
blies of  various  kinds  and  to  some  extent  in  our  legis- 
lation. The  Sunday  laws  in  many  states  are  still  based 
upon  the  idea  that  Sunday  is  a  sacred  day  which  for 
religious  reasons  must  be  observed  by  not  engaging  in 
ordinary  work.  In  some  states,  however,  the  laws  re- 
garding Sunday  are  based  solely  upon  moral  and  socio- 
logical principles.  Instead  of  saying  what  may  be  done 
on  that  day,  the  law  simply  provides  that  all  workers 
shall  have  one  day  in  seven  free  to  spend  in  other  ways 
than  in  their  regular  work,  or  it  may  go  a  little  farther 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  NEEDS  117 

in  recognizing  the  rights  of  certain  classes  of  people  to 
follow  their  custom  of  observing  Sunday  in  certain  ways, 
and  to  that  end  prohibits  others  from  doing  anything 
to  interfere  with  such  observance. 

Much  is  gained  by  taking  the  scientific  view  with 
regard  to  religious  as  well  as  other  phenomena,  but  in 
so  far  as  utility  rather  than  some  ideal  serves  as  a  mo- 
tive for  action,  there  is  a  distinct  loss.  There  is  a  pos- 
itive danger  to  society  in  developing  knowledge  and 
utilitarian  ideas  as  standards  for  control  and  regidation 
of  conduct,  if  there  is  at  the  same  time  a  loss  of  the 
powerful  influence  of  religious  ideals  as  ultimate  con- 
trollers and  regulators  of  action. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  illustrations  of  regulations  that  are  binding  largely 
because  of  custom  and  others  for  which  a  reason  may 
be  shown. 

2.  Why  was  horse-stealing  considered  such  a  serious  crime 
in  pioneer  days  ?  Give  other  examples  of  morality  gov- 
erned by  special  circumstances. 

3.  If  laws  inflicting  punishment  for  stealing  were  repealed 
in  your  state  would  stealing  increase  ?  Would  the  ma- 
jority of  the  people  steal  ?  Why  ? 

4.  Is  there  any  ideal  of  heroism  that  can  take  the  place  of 
those  furnished  by  war  ? 

6.  Give  several  illustrations  of  moral  obligations  based  on 
the  idea  of  loyalty  to  a  group  ? 

6.  Why  is  acting  as  a  strike-breaker  regarded  as  so  wrong 
by  union  men  even  when  the  one  who  so  acts  has  a 
family  threatened  with  starvation?  To  what  extent 
do  societies  of  various  kinds  enlarge  or  narrow  group 
loyalty  ? 

7.  Should  a  statesman  be  judged  by  his  loyalty  to  his  dis- 
trict, to  his  country,  or  by  his  personal  morals  ? 


118  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

8.  To  what  extent  does  a  permanently  successful,  indus- 
trial, or  commercial  institution  foster  morality  on  the 
part  of  those  who  are  rimning  it  and  haying  dealings 
with  it  ? 

9.  Give  specific  evidence  of  increase  in  public  morality  or 
regard  for  the  interests  of  all  the  people  instead  of  for 
certain  individuals,  groups,  or  classes. 

10.  Just  how  or  why  does  standardization  in  the  industries 
help  to  promote  honesty  ? 

11.  Are  truthfulness  and  honesty  valued  now  chiefly  be- 
cause of  their  sacred  character  or  because  they  are  sen- 
sible, useful,  profitable  ways  of  acting  ?  Which  exercises 
the  greater  restraint,  the  supposed  sanctity  of  truth,  or 
knowledge  of  its  general  value  or  significance  in  life  ? 
Is  it  the  same  for  all  kinds  of  persons  ? 

12.  Would  a  nation  that  destroyed  all  helpless  and  defec- 
tive individuals  reach  a  higher  type  of  civilization  than 
one  that  cared  for  them  ? 

13.  Give  illustrations  of  the  substitution  of  scientifically 
directed  operations  for  religious  exercises. 

14.  Just  how  does  such  an  act  as  keeping  the  Sabbath,  or 
fasting,  foster  religious  belief  ? 

15.  What  evidence  can  you  find  in  the  census  reports  that 
religion  is  or  is  not  powerful  enough  to  enlist  more  men 
and  money  in  its  service  than  formerly  ? 


\ 


CHAPTER  XI 

EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  —  GENERAL 

Education  a  need  of  every  social  group.  Whenever 
people  have  been  living,  working,  playing  together  for 
some  time,  they  have  developed  certain  customs,  knowl- 
edge, and  skill  which  must  be  acquired  by  any  new- 
comer before  he  can  successfully  carry  on  his  part  as  a 
member  of  the  group.  This  applies  equally  to  the  vari- 
ous organizations  of  to-day,  to  nations,  and  to  the  most 
primitive  groups  of  hmnan  beings.  Many  of  the  mod- 
em societies  and  lodges  give  special  instruction  to  new 
members,  and  most  of  them  do  not  allow  a  member  to 
take  a  position  of  prominence  until  he  has  been  allied 
with  the  society  for  some  time  and  has  had  an  opportu- 
nity to  become  familiar  with  its  workings. 

In  groups  of  primitive  people  considerable  knowledge 
and  skill  is  necessary  in  most  places  in  order  to  main- 
tain life.  They  must  know  what  may  be  used  for  food, 
where  it  may  be  obtained,  and  how  it  may  be  prepared 
and  stored  for  future  use.  There  must  be  knowledge  of 
what  is  dangerous  to  life  and  of  the  means  of  providing 
protection  against  wild  animals,  climatic  changes,  and 
enemies.  Besides  this  there  are  in  every  social  group 
certain  kinds  of  action  expected  of  the  different  classes 
of  people,  the  men,  the  women,  the  children,  and  the 
leaders  or  the  servants  if  there  are  such.  Each  group 
of  people  has  traditions,  social  customs,  moral  and  reli- 
gious beliefs  with  which  any  newcomer  most  become 
familiar. 


Y 


120  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Even  if  the  group  is  isolated  and  has  none  coming 
to  it  from  other  groups,  still  it  is  continually  receiving 
new  individuals  by  the  birth  of  children  and  their 
growth  to  maturity.  The  process  by  which  these  new 
individuals  learn  to  take  their  places  in  the  community 
is  one  of  education.  They  are  not  bom  with  the  knowl- 
edge possessed  by  the  group,  but  must  acquire  it.  They 
do  not,  however,  have  to  acquire  it  all  independently, 
by  chance  or  purposive  experiments  that  reveal  to  them 
what  is  good  to  eat,  what  is  dangerous,  what  the  needs 
for  the  different  times  of  the  year  are,  or  what  customs 
are  most  advantageous.  They  can  learn  these  things  in 
a  shorter  time  and  with  much  less  pain  and  danger  by 
observing  the  actions  of  older  members  of  the  group 
and  by  imitating  and  receiving  instruction  from  them. 
If  the  young  people  in  each  group  did  not  have  the 
opportunity  thus  to  learn  from  their  elders,  it  would 
be  difficult  for  the  group  to  survive  except  in  the  more 
favorable  regions  of  the  earth  and  it  would  be  impos- 
sible for  it  to  maintain  its  institutions  and  culture. 
Education  of  the  younger  generation  is,  therefore,  a 
necessity  in  every  case. 

The  greater  the  knowledge  and  skill  required  in 
order  that  the  group  may  live  efficiently,  the  greater 
the  necessity  for  education  and  the  more  necessary  is  it 
that  the  new  generation  shall  not  only  learn  from  their 
elders  rather  than  by  their  own  experience  alone,  but 
that  they  shall  be  consciously  taught  by  them.  This  is 
why  so  much  time  must  be  devoted  to  education  in  the 
present  day  thickly  settled  community  with  artificial 
surroundings,  where  life  is  maintained  by  complex  indus- 
tries. 

Character  of  primitive  education.  Among  primitive 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  GENERAL  121 

people  the  children  receive  a  large  part  of  their  educa- 
tion incidentally  through  observing  the  actions  of  older 
people,  imitating  them,  and  helping  them.  In  most 
cases  they  also  receive  some  instruction  as  to  how  to 
secure  and  prepare  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  This 
training  is  given  chiefly  by  parents  and  older  children. 
The  more  formal  and  direct  instruction  is  usually  moral 
and  religious  and  is  given  by  the  elders  of  the  com- 
munity. In  nearly  aU  tribes  a  certain  amount  of  time, 
varying  from  a  few  days  to  several  months,  is  devoted 
to  giving  the  young  the  special  training  necessary  to 
perpetuate  the  moral  and  religious  beliefs  of  the  group. 
This  instruction  is  usually  given  at  the  age  of  puberty, 
just  before  the  young  people  take  their  places  as  mem- 
bers of  the  community. 

The  character  of  the  education  varies  with  every 
group,  but  in  most  cases  it  involves  more  action  than 
receiving  of  instruction.  In  many  cases  the  youths  are 
made  to  endure  hunger  and  pain  and  are  required  to 
deny  themselves  and  act  exactly  in  accordance  with 
directions.  Often  they  are  required  to  go  through  cer- 
tain ceremonies  that  are  symbolic  or  religious  in  char- 
acter. Along  with  these  ceremonies  there  may  be  given 
some  instruction  as  to  the  history  of  the  tribe  and  the 
significance  of  the  various  movements,  songs,  dances, 
etc.,  which  they  learn. 

The  instructors  are  in  nearly  all  cases  the  older  men 
of  the  tribe,  and  if  the  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  group 
are  to  be  perpetuated,  the  instruction  must  be  impres- 
sive and  permanent  in  its  effects.  This  is  probably  one 
reason  why  fasting,  tests  of  endurance,  secrecy,  and  de- 
tailed directions  as  to  the  exact  way  in  which  things 
must  be  done  are  made  so  prominent  in  these  initiative 


122  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ceremonies  which  constitute  the  principal  feature  of 
the  education  given  by  the  priests  and  old  men  of  the 
group. 

The  character  of  civilized  education.  When  people 
have  developed  so  that  they  use  a  great  many  tools  and 
a  great  variety  of  machinery  in  many  specialized  in- 
dustries, and  when  the  amount  of  general  and  special 
knowledge  possessed  by  the  group  is  very  extensive, 
the  necessity  for  the  education  of  children  becomes 
vastly  greater.  Years  of  study  and  training  are  neces- 
sary before  the  individual  can  acquire  even  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  general  knowledge  possessed  by  the  group, 
and  many  more  years  of  technical  training,  to  prepare 
for  one  of  the  more  highly  specialized  occupations  by 
means  of  which  individuals  indirectly  obtain  food,  cloth- 
ing, shelter,  and  the  satisfaction  of  various  desires. 

Although  much  may  still  be  learned  incidentally  by 
observation  and  imitation,  yet  a  great  deal  more  must 
be  definitely  taught.  The  occupation  of  the  father  is 
usually  outside  of  the  home  and  the  son  has  little  op- 
portunity to  become  familiar  with  it  by  observation. 
Of  the  occupations  of  other  men  he  has  also  little  op- 
portunity to  learn  incidentally.  He  must  go  into  the 
office,  shop,  or  factory,  and  then  he  finds  division  of 
labor  and  specialization  so  complete  that  he  can  learn 
little  except  by  special  study  and  practice  in  particular 
processes. 

As  to  general  knowledge  the  child  at  the  present  day 
can  acquire  much  incidentally  concerning  his  own  neigh- 
borhood and  his  own  times,  but  of  other  places  and  of 
other  ages  he  must  learn  for  the  most  part  by  special 
study. 

For  the  reasons  g^ven  above,  civilized  society,  instead 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — GENERAL  123 

of  requiring  the  young  to  spend  a  few  days  or  a  few 
months  in  receiving  instruction,  finds  it  necessary  for 
them  to  spend  from  six  to  eighteen  years  in  preparing 
themselves  for  taking  an  effective  part  in  the  activities 
of  life.  Education  can  no  longer  be  left  to  the  parents 
and  to  a  few  of  the  older  men,  but  society  must  provide 
a  means  for  carrying  it  on. 

Although  children  stiU  receive  a  great  deal  of  edu- 
cation in  the  home  and  from  various  other  sources, 
especially  the  church,  yet  the  chief  institution  for  pre- 
paring the  young  to  take  their  places  in  life  is  the 
school.  The  necessity  of  such  an  institution  is  now  fully 
recognized.  Not  only  are  there  schools  in  aU  civilized 
countries,  but  these  schools  are  generally  controlled  and 
supported  by  the  state.  Education  is  no  longer  re- 
garded merely  as  a  convenience  for  the  individual,  but 
as  a  necessity  for  society.  The  material  and  social  com- 
fort of  life  to-day  depends  not  so  much  upon  natural 
environment  as  upon  artificial  conditions  that  can  be 
maintained  only  by  skilled  workers  who  have  received 
a  long  course  of  training. 

If  a  single  generation  were  left  without  education, 
the  possibilities  of  life,  comfort,  and  happiness  would 
decrease  so  rapidly,  especially  in  the  thickly  populated 
districts,  that  untold  misery  would  result.  We  all  know 
that  a  strike  in  a  single  industry  may  cause  an  im- 
mense amount  of  discomfort  and  suffering.  Inefficiency 
in  all  the  industries  and  in  the  management  of  govern- 
mental affairs  would  result  from  failure  to  educate  a 
single  generation.  Without  the  natural  advantages  the 
savage  enjoys,  we  in  our  artificial  environment  would 
be  far  more  helpless  than  he. 

Where  each  generation  is  educated,  it  is  possible  for 


124  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

a  thousand  times  as  many  people  to  live  comfortably  in 
the  same  territory  as  it  would  be  if  they  were  ignorant, 
untrained  savages.  Civilization  can  maintain  itself  only 
by  educating  each  new  generation  as  fully  as  the  past 
generation  was  educated.  In  order  to  advance,  the  edu- 
cation given  each  rising  generation  must  be  superior  to 
that  given  to  preceding  ones.  It  must  prepare  them  for 
doing  successfully  what  is  already  being  done,  accord- 
ing to  the  methods  now  used,  but  it  must  also  prepare 
them  for  receiving  new  ideas  and  introducing  improved 
methods. 

A  nation  may  aim,  as  China  did  for  centuries,  to 
^ve  an  education  designed  to  produce  a  condition  of 
society  like  that  of  its  own  best  past,  or  it  may  prepare 
for  the  life  of  to-day  as  it  is  being  carried  on,  or  it 
may  prepare  for  a  different  and  better  future  which  is 
expected  when  the  newer  generation  takes  its  place  in 
society. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  a  complete  break  with  the 
past  because  the  teachers,  the  schools,  and  all  other 
social  influences  are  the  products  of  the  past.  Educa- 
tional institutions,  ideals,  and  practices  require  several 
generations  before  they  can  be  wholly  transformed.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  even  though  the  ideal  be  a  new 
order  of  society,  considerable  time  must  be  required 
before  teachers  can  be  trained  to  teach  so  as  to  bring 
it  about,  since  they  cannot  entirely  break  away  from 
the  training  they  themselves  had  when  young.  It  is  safe 
to  say  also  that  there  is  much  in  the  past  teaching  that 
is  fundamentally  good  or  it  would  not  have  been  used 
for  many  generations. 

Closely  associated  with  the  aim  of  education  is  the 
question  of   the  materials  of   instruction  to  be  used. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL     125 

The  more  the  material  is  taken  from  the  culture  epochs 
of  the  remote  past  rather  than  from  the  recent  past  or 
immediate  present,  the  more  conservative  is  the  teach- 
ing. The  new  generation  is  prevented  from  breaking 
away  from  the  traditions  of  the  older  and  is  fitted  for 
life  as  it  has  been,  but  not  necessarily  for  the  present. 
If  the  culture  material  is  taken  from  the  life  of  to-day, 
there  is  a  possibility  that  it  may  not  be  so  good,  against 
the  chance  that  it  may  be  better,  and  a  certainty  that 
the  new  generation  will  be  different  from  the  old  which 
had  different  training. 

In  former  times  the  aim  of  education  was  to  develop 
a  highly  cultured,  well-trained,  ruling  class,  but  in  re- 
cent times,  as  democracy  has  developed,  the  aim  has 
been  to  give  everybody  at  least  a  minimum  amount  of 
education,  and  the  tendency  is  for  more  advanced  edu- 
cation to  be  granted  to  a  larger  portion  of  the  people. 
In  some  countries,  however,  a  disproportionately  large 
amount  of  money  is  spent  on  higher  education  as  com- 
pared with  the  elementary  schools. 

Aims  and  functions  of  the  schools.  The  necessity 
for  education,  as  already  indicated,  determines  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  aims  and  functions  of  the  schooL 
The  school  must  take  the  chief  responsibility  of  prepar- 
ing the  yoimg  people  to  carry  on  the  world's  work  and 
to  make  further  advance  in  civilization  possible.  It  is 
true  that  an  immense  amount  of  education  is  given  the 
rising  generation  incidentally  and  intentionally  outside 
of  the  school.  It  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  utilize 
and  supplement  this  education  in  such  a  way  that  young 
people  will  be  prepared  for  the  work  now  being  done 
and  that  which  will  need  to  be  done  in  the  future. 
Whatever  education  is  needed  that  is  not  given  sue- 


126  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

cessfuHy  by  experience,  by  the  home,  or  by  the  church, 
must  be  given  by  the  school. 

The  demands  being  made  upon  the  school  are  in- 
creasing rapidly,  not  only  because  of  the  advance  in 
knowledge  and  the  increase  in  complexity  of  the  proc- 
esses involved  in  the  various  industries,  but  because 
the  effectiveness  of  the  other  educational  influences  is 
decreasing  rather  than  increasing.  The  children  have 
less  opportunity  to  learn  by  observation  and  experience 
than  formerly,  because  they  are  in  the  midst  of  an  arti- 
ficial environment  in  which  many  of  the  processes  are 
carried  on  by  means  of  complicated  and  invisible  ma- 
chinery. They  have  comparatively  little  opportunity  to 
observe  the  phenomena  of  nature  or  to  observe  and 
imitate  the  simple  means  by  which  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter  are  obtained  under  primitive  conditions. 

The  home  is  far  less  influential  than  formerly  be- 
cause the  various  members  of  the  family  are  together 
there  only  a  small  portion  of  the  time.  Much  of  the 
work  is  done  away  from  home  and  amusement  and  so- 
cial intercourse  are  gained  elsewhere,  often  separately 
by  the  different  members  of  the  family. 

The  church,  although  directly  and  indirectly  a  pow- 
erful educative  influence,  is  comparatively  much  less 
prominent  than  in  former  days.  The  number  of  hours 
spent  in  church  and  Sunday  school  are  few  and  the 
amount  learned  correspondingly  slight. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  with  the  mass  of  subject- 
matter  to  be  learned  increasing  with  wonderful  rapidity 
and  the  educational  influence  of  other  institutions  than 
the  school  diminishing,  that  more  and  more  should  be 
demanded  of  the  schools.  Subject  after  subject  is  added 
to  the  courses  of  study  and  still  there  is  increased  de- 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL     127 

mand  that  the  schools  do  more.  The  schools  are  being 
made  a  means  not  only  of  preserving  what  has  already 
been  gained  in  knowledge,  but  of  preparing  for  further 
advance  in  science,  art,  literature,  civics,  and  morals. 

The  functions  of  the  schools  are  being  enlarged  still 
further.  Primarily  they  were  established  to  prepare 
the  youthful  generation  for  life,  but  now  they  are  be- 
ginning also  to  take  on  the  function  of  giving  further 
education  to  the  adult  population.  This  is  being  done 
both  directly  and  indirectly.  Indirectly,  important  edu- 
cative influences  reach  from  the  schools  to  the  home 
through  the  children.  This  is  perhaps  especially  promi- 
nent in  the  lines  of  literature,  home  decoration,  and 
hygiene.  Direct  education  is  given  to  adults  in  the  form 
of  public  lectures,  evening  schools,  continuation  schools, 
reading  clubs,  and  university  extension  work.  At  first 
this  kind  of  instruction  was  given  largely  through  pri- 
vate organizations,  but  is  now  being  directed  more  and 
more  by  school  authorities. 

In  addition  to  this,  researches  of  all  kinds  are  being 
carried  on  by  educational  institutions  and  the  results  of 
these  studies  are  given  to  those  to  whom  they  will  be 
most  valuable.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  most  impor- 
tant work  of  this  kind  has  been  in  the  line  of  agricul- 
ture. The  principles  of  better  farming  have  been  devel- 
oped in  experiment  stations  and  agricultural  colleges 
and  have  been  taught  to  the  farmers  of  the  country  very 
extensively.  The  schools,  lower  and  higher,  are  being 
more  and  more  relied  upon  for  discovering  new  truths 
that  will  be  useful  to  mankind  and  for  spreading  the 
knowledge  to  young  and  old. 

Many  think  that  too  much  is  being  demanded  of  the 
school,  that  it  is  taking  upon  itself  functions  that  could 


128  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

better  be  performed  by  other  institutions.  This  may  be 
true,  but  the  young  people  must  be  properly  trained  or 
civilization  cannot  be  maintained,  to  say  nothing  of  mak- 
ing progress,  and  if  the  training  is  not  being  given  out- 
side, it  remains  for  the  school,  as  the  chief  educational 
institution  under  the  control  of  society,  to  do  the  work. 

It  has  been  claimed  by  some  that  with  such  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  subjects  it  is  impossible  for  the 
schools  to  give  as  thorough  training  in  the  older  funda- 
mentals as  was  given  when  the  subjects  were  fewer.  A 
comparison  with  the  work  sixty  years  ago,  made  possible 
by  the  discovery  of  a  set  of  old  examination  papers  in 
Springfield,  Massachusetts,  proves,  however,  that  the 
modern  youth,  with  his  many  subjects,  is  superior  to  the 
old-time  pupil  in  the  fundamentals  of  spelling,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  and  no  one  wiU  question  that  he  is  supe- 
rior in  reading  and  in  general  information.  The  more 
cultural  surroundings  in  which  children  live  to-day, 
and  better  methods  of  teaching  and  correlating  what  is 
taught,  make  it  possible  for  children  to  pursue  the  more 
extensive  course  of  study  and  yet  increase  their  efficiency 
in  the  fundamentals. 

Organization  and  control  of  schools.  It  is  generally 
recognized  that  the  state  is  the  final  authority  in  edu- 
cation. In  most  civilized  countries  it  requires  all  children 
to  attend  school  up  to  a  certain  age,  and  it  provides  or 
requires  that  the  local  community  shall  provide  for  the 
education  of  all  children.  It  also  regulates  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  by  law,  the  processes  of  education. 

As  to  the  actual  carrying-on  of  the  schools  there  are 
considerable  differences  in  various  countries  and  in  the 
states  of  this  country.  In  some  places  there  is  what 
is  called  a  centralized  system  in  which  the  state  assumes 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL     129 

full  control  of  the  local  schools,  while  in  other  places 
the  state  makes  certain  general  regulations,  but  leaves 
the  local  community  to  carry  on  its  own  schools,  the 
expense  being  usually  born  in  part  by  the  state  and  in 
part  by  the  local  community.  Under  the  centralized 
system  the  state  not  only  specifies  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  schools  that  must  be  established  and  the 
length  of  time  that  they  shall  be  in  session,  but  it 
makes  the  course  of  study,  sometimes  prescribes  the  text- 
books to  be  used,  determines  who  shall  teach  in  the 
local  schools,  gives  examinations,  and  determines  all 
matters  of  admission,  promotion,  and  graduation.  In 
other  states,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  the  local  com- 
munity has  had  until  recently  almost  complete  freedom 
to  control  its  own  schools,  which  it  supports  almost 
wholly  by  local  taxation.  The  state  makes  certain  gen- 
eral regulations  and  encourages  towns  to  have  good 
schools  by  helping  the  poorer  towns  in  proportion  as 
they  are  willing  to  help  themselves,  as  shown  by  their 
spending  a  large  proportion  of  the  money  raised  by 
taxation  on  their  schools. 

A  centralized  system  has  all  the  advantages  of  uni- 
formity and  the  still  greater  disadvantages.   It  saves 
the  schools  in  some  communities  from  being  as  poor  as 
they  might  be,  but  it  makes  it  difficult  for  others  to 
be  as  good  as  they  wish  to  be.   The  basal  idea  support- 
ing the  centralized  system  is  the  belief  that  one  man 
or  a  group  of  men  can  be  wiser  for  all  the  communi- 
ties of  the  state  than  the  members  of  each  community 
^•/yt^can  be  for  themselves.     It  also  presupposes  that  all 
SrCommunities  are  essentially  alike  and  what  is  good  for 
"^ne  is  good  for  the  others.  The  last  supposition  is  en- 
tirely without  foundation,  for  in  each  state  there  is  an 


130  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

immense  difference  between  the  rural  and  city  com- 
munlties  and  also  between  different  rural  and  urban 
communities. 

The  former  supposition,  that  the  central  authorities 
can  direct  the  affairs  of  each  community  better  than 
the  people  of  the  community,  is  true  only  in  an  un- 
democratic country  and  where  the  people  of  the  local 
communities  are  ignorant.  In  a  monarchy  such  cen- 
tralized control  would  be  consistent,  but  in  a  republic, 
where  each  local  community  not  only  governs  itself, 
but  takes  a  part  in  national  and  state  government,  it 
is  quite  inconsistent  to  suppose  that  they  cannot  man- 
age their  educational  affairs. 

Furthermore,  the  responsibility  of  the  community 
for  directing  the  education  of  its  children  is  in  itself 
an  important  educative  influence.  To  deprive  it  of  that 
responsibility  is  to  take  away  one  of  the  most  important 
means  of  progress. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  local  community  should 
be  left  entirely  without  help  in  solving  its  educational 
problems.  On  the  contrary,  the  central  educational 
officials  should  furnish  it  with  all  possible  information 
as  to  what  may  be  done  and  as  to  the  most  successful 
means  used  in  other  communities.  The  central  officials 
in  education  should  be  to  the  local  school  officials  what 
the  departments  and  schools  of  agriculture  are  to  the 
farmers  of  the  state.  These  institutions  have  no  au- 
thority whatever  over  the  farmer,  but  they  furnish  him 
reliable  information  as  to  what  crops  may  be  success- 
fully grown  in  each  kind  of  soil  and  how  the  plant- 
ing and  culture  of  a  crop  may  be  carried  on  most 
profitably.  In  a  similar  way  the  state  educational 
officials  should  aid  the  local  communities.    This  policy 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  GENERAL  131 

of  showing  them  what  may  be  done  with  advantage  will 
be  far  more  effective  than  requiring  all  to  come  up  to 
some  fixed  standard. 

Another  objection  to  authoritative  control  by  state 
officials  is,  that  it  tends  not  only  to  uniformity,  but  to 
a  continuance  of  that  uniformity.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  local  communities  are  allowed  to  try  whatever 
seems  to  meet  their  needs  and  the  state  officials  study 
and  test  the  results  of  these  experiments  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  state  and  make  public  the  facts  obtained, 
the  chances  for  improvement  and  advancement  with 
changing  needs  are  greatly  increased. 

School  administration.  The  administration  of  schools, 
like  that  of  other  organizations,  has  tended  to  become 
narrowly  institutional  instead  of  broadly  public-spir- 
ited. Schools  were  organized  to  perform  a  public  serv- 
ice for  society,  but  have  been  administered  as  if  the 
purpose  of  each  grade  were  to  prepare  for  the  grade 
above,  and  the  aim  of  the  whole  to  prepare  for  an 
academic  career  instead  of  for  community  life. 

Educators,  finding  that  there  were  considerable  ad- 
vantages in  teaching  children  in  groups  comprising 
those  that  had  taken  the  same  work,  were  led  to  over- 
value the  importance  of  grading  and  especially  the  im- 
portance of  artificial  standards  in  education.  This  theory- 
was  carried  out  in  the  form  of  strict  grading,  and  only 
those  who  had  done  a  certain  amount  and  kind  of  work, 
as  indicated  by  examinations  and  markings,  were  per- 
mitted to  advance  from  one  grade  to  another  or  to  be 
admitted  from  the  grades  to  the  high  school  and  from 
the  high  school  to  college.  In  some  instances  children 
who  had  failed  in  one  subject  only  were  held  back,  and 
as  a  total  result  great  numbers  of  children  dropped  out, 


UB  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

wlio  would  have  continued  in  school  longer  had  they 
been  permitted  and  encouraged  to  do  so.  The  only 
advantage  gained  by  this  policy  was  the  preservation  of 
lA  an  artificial  standard  of  scholarship  and  the  fact  that 
■^f  the  work  of  the  teachers  was  rendered  somewhat  easier 
and  more  mechanical.  The  disadvantages  were  many, 
the  chief  one  being  that  a  large  number  of  children 
were  discouraged  or  refused  an  education,  who  had  as 
good  a  right  to  it  as  those  of  greater  ability  and  per- 
haps of  less  need.  Not  only  were  they  discouraged  by 
these  means  from  taking  further  education,  but  also  by 
the  fact  that  the  advanced  studies  offered  were  not  such 
as  were  needed  or  desired  by  pupils  who  did  not  expect 
to  enter  the  professions. 

When  we  look  at  the  matter  from  a  broad  sociologi- 
cal point  of  view  we  see  that  every  child  and  youth 
should  have  that  kind  of  education  which  he  is  most 
capable  of  receiving  or  of  which  he  is  in  most  need,  and 
which  will  make  him  a  useful  member  of  society,  re- 
gardless of  what  scholastic  standards  may  be.  We  see 
also  that  the  only  justification  for  keeping  a  child  in  a 
given  grade  of  school,  or  for  advancing  him  into  an- 
other, is  that  he  can  profit  more  with  that  group  than 
with  any  other  and  that  he  can  gain  this  profit  without 
seriously  interfering  with  the  work  of  other  pupils. 

In  a  few  schools  this  attitude  is  already  taken,  and 
any  pupil  who  is  making  little  or  no  progress,  even 
though  he  may  be  in  only  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade,  if 
old  enough  and  if  it  is  believed  that  he  can  profit  by 
the  work  of  the  secondary  school,  is  placed  in  that  school 
and  given  the  work  which  will  be  most  beneficial  to 
him.  There  is  no  justification  for  any  other  policy  in 
graded  and  secondary  schools  supported  by  public  funds. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL  133 

Marking,  examinations,  and  tests.  If  this  be  true, 
then  the  only  reasons  for  making  any  record  indicating 
the  proficiency  of  any  pupil  are  these :  first,  that  bet- 
ter advice  may  be  given  as  to  where  he  shall  be  placed 
and  what  subjects  he  shall  take  in  order  that  he  may 
make  the  most  of  his  educational  opportunities ;  second, 
to  inform  the  pupil  regarding  his  own  successes  and  his 
points  of  greatest  strength  and  to  stimulate  him  to  fur- 
ther effort. 

Neither  of  these  ends  is  effectually  accomplished  by 
the  system  of  examination  and  marking  and  the  usual 
policy  with  regard  to  promotions.  The  examinations  are 
largely  tests  of  memory  rather  than  of  usable  acquisi- 
tions and  at  best  are  very  inexact.  They  vary  greatly 
in  difficulty  and  the  standards  of  those  who  mark  re- 
sults are  still  more  variable.  They  are  also  open  to  the 
criticism  that,  since  the  pupil  in  order  to  go  on  with  his 
education  must  obtain  certain  marks,  they  encourage 
effort  toward  getting  those  marks  by  the  easiest  means 
available,  rather  than  toward  getting  a  real  knowledge 
of  the  subject  being  studied.  Since  so  much  depends 
upon  getting  certain  marks,  some  persons  are  nervous 
and  fail  to  do  their  best,  others  cram  for  examinations, 
often  with  the  aid  of  professional  tutors  whose  business 
it  is  to  prepare  them  to  pass. 

The  experience  of  teachers  and  records  of  universi- 
ties show  that  there  is  no  close  relation  between  the 
daily  work  of  a  pupil  and  his  examination,  and  still  less 
relation  between  the  entrance  examinations  of  pupils 
and  the  record  they  make  during  the  college  course. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  found,  in  general,  that  pupils 
who  in  the  grades  do  well,  in  the  opinion  of  their  teach- 
ers, who  mark  them  not  merely  by  their  examinations, 


134  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

but  by  all  that  they  know  of  them  m  their  work,  also 
do  well  in  high  school  and  college.  This  indicates  that 
acquaintance  with  a  pupil  leads  to  a  more  accurate 
judgment  as  to  what  he  can  do  than  does  the  grading 
of  a  set  of  papers  that  he  has  written. 

Recent  developments  in  psychology  and  pedagogy  in- 
dicate that  great  improvements  may  be  made  in  test- 
ing and  promoting  pupils.  This  is  best  exemplified  by 
the  Courtis  tests  in  arithmetic.  By  means  of  these  it  is 
possible  to  measure  what  one  can  do  in  arithmetic  with 
almost  as  much  accuracy  as  it  is  to  determine  how  far 
a  boy  can  jump  or  how  rapidly  he  can  run.  Scales  for 
grading  work  in  penmanship  have  also  been  constructed, 
and  many  other  tests  are  being  developed  which  will 
be  as  much  more  accurate  than  are  examinations,  in 
measuring  what  pupils  can  do,  as  a  steel  tape  is  more 
accurate  for  linear  measurement  than  a  rubber  band. 

These  tests,  in  order  to  be  useful,  must,  however,  be 
considered  merely  as  measures  and  not  as  standards 
that  must  be  reached  in  order  to  obtain  promotion.  It 
is  a  good  thing  to  be  able  to  measure  a  boy  and  see 
how  tall  he  is  or  to  time  him  and  find  how  rapidly  he 
can  run,  but  there  is  no  reason  whatever  why  we  should 
try  to  make  him  approximate  a  certain  standard  height 
or  a  certain  standard  rate  of  running  and  keep  him 
working  to  try  to  reach  those  standards  instead  of  do- 
ing things  that  are  more  useful  to  him.  Heredity  limits 
the  possibilities  of  his  attainment  in  those  directions, 
and  only  the  amount  of  practice  needed  to  develop  them 
to  a  reasonable  extent  is  valuable.  That  he  should  be 
kept  to  a  certain  kind  of  exercise,  instead  of  doing 
something  else,  unless  reasonable  improvement  is  tak- 
ing place,  has  no  justification. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL     135 

What  is  true  of  physical  abilities  is  just  as  true  of 
mental.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  boy,  who  is  slow  in 
addition  and  who  has  almost  ceased  to  improve  with 
practice,  should  be  kept  at  it  instead  of  being  allowed 
to  take  up  some  other  work  that  will  give  better  re- 
sults. The  same  is  true  in  every  sort  of  a  test  or  stand- 
ard of  mental  ability.  The  test  should  be  as  accurate  a 
measure  of  the  ability  being  tested  as  possible  and  the 
standard  should  simply  be  a  norm  by  means  of  which 
the  child  and  others  may  know  whether  his  power  in 
that  respect  is  greater  or  less  than  that  of  others  of  the 
same  age  and  who  have  had  the  same  training.  Such 
knowledge  is  as  interesting  and  helpfid  to  the  boy  as 
is  a  knowledge  of  how  tall  he  is  as  compared  with  other 
boys  of  his  own  age,  or  of  how  his  jumping  or  his  strength 
or  his  speed  in  running  compares  with  that  of  others. 
It  helps  him  more  accurately  to  judge  his  own  abilities, 
stimulates  him  to  improve  if  he  is  capable  of  improve- 
ment, and  helps  him  to  decide  as  to  the  lines  in  which 
he  can  most  profitably  specialize. 

Such  tests  are  also  helpful  to  the  teacher  in  accu- 
rately judging  the  special  ability  of  his  pupils.  They 
may  also  be  of  great  help  to  superintendents  and  sci- 
entific students  of  pedagogy.  By  means  of  such  tests 
the  relative  advantages  of  different  methods  of  teach- 
ing a  subject  may  be  determined  and  the  efficiency  of 
different  schools  and  different  teachers  may  be  com- 
pared. Care  must,  however,  be  taken  in  using  them  for 
the  latter  purpose.  If  teachers  know  that  they  are  thus 
to  be  used,  they  may  attempt  to  give  special  drill  pre- 
paratory to  passing  these  tests,  instead  of  giving  the 
best  training  in  the  subjects  concerned. 

Although  tests  may  be  prepared  that  will  measure 


136  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

pretty  accurately  what  has  been  gained  in  the  study  of 
a  certain  subject  under  ordinary  circumstances,  yet  it 
would  be  difficult  to  construct  tests  that  will  be  accu- 
rate measures  of  knowledge  and  ability  in  the  subject 
when  special  time  has  been  spent  in  drilling,  directly 
preparatory  to  the  test. 

If  the  question  of  promotion  is  simply  that  of  put- 
ting the  child  where  he  can  get  what  is  of  most  value 
to  him,  there  will  be  no  motive  inducing  him  to  take 
special  means  for  getting  a  higher  record  than  his 
abilities  warrant.  The  teacher  is  also  relieved  of  the 
necessity  of  trying  to  give  a  mark  that  will  indicate 
the  exact  attainments  of  pupils.  She  will  only  need  to 
decide  whether  the  pupil  is  likely  to  profit  more  in  the 
advanced  grade  or  school  than  he  is  by  remaining. 

If  any  record  other  than  advice  as  to  promotion  is 
needed  for  any  purpose,  the  records  of  such  scientific 
tests  as  have  been  taken  and  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher  as  to  the  attainment  of  the  pupil  may  be  in- 
dicated sufficiently  by  ranking  the  pupil  as  belonging 
to  one  of  three  or  five  groups.  If  this  is  done,  the  rank- 
ing should  be  made  not  in  accordance  with  any  ideal 
standard  of  how  good  the  work  should  be,  but  merely 
as  an  indication  of  the  comparative  success  of  the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  class.  The  largest  proportion  of 
the  class  should  be  in  the  group  of  pupils  of  medium 
attainment,  a  smaller  number  above  medium  and  below 
medium,  and  a  stiU  smaller  number  who  have  done 
exceptionally  well  or  whose  work  is  exceptionally  poor. 
Such  records  as  this  mean  more  than  percentages,  for 
if  the  student  is  in  the  first  third  of  his  class  we  know 
that  he  has  done  well  compared  with  others  who  have 
the  same  opportunity  as  he,  but  if  he  has  a  record  of 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  GENERAL     137 

eighty-seven  per  cent,  we  do  not  know  what  it  indicates 
as  to  his  ability  and  his  attainment  in  that  subject, 
unless  we  know  the  mark  received  by  others  of  the 
class  who  had  the  same  chance. 

Standardization  in  education.  Measurements  and 
standards  are  as  important  in  working  toward  effi- 
ciency and  economy  in  education  as  they  are  in  eco- 
nomics. Measurements,  though  somewhat  less  exact 
than  in  other  sciences,  may  be  employed  in  the  same 
way  in  developing  a  theoretical  and  applied  science  of 
education.  In  order  that  this  may  be  the  case,  pupils 
who  fail  in  various  tests  should  be  permitted  to  remain 
in  school  and  records  should  be  kept  that  will  show 
whether  students  who  fail  in  certain  lines  to  a  certain 
extent  will  almost  surely  fail  in  other  lines.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, it  is  established  by  such  tests  and  records  that 
all  those  who  fall  below  a  certain  standard  in  arithme- 
tic, grammar,  or  any  other  subject,  are  sure  to  fail  in 
algebra,  geometry,  or  commercial  arithmetic,  while  they 
may  be  able  to  succeed  admirably  in  literature,  draw- 
ing, and  manual  training,  then  there  would  be  good 
reason  for  fixing  certain  standards  in  certain  subjects 
that  must  be  reached  if  certain  other  subjects  are  to  be 
studied.  Such  a  use  of  standards  in  education  would  be 
scientific  and  of  advantage  to  the  individual  in  saving 
him  wasted  effort.  There  is  no  justification,  however, 
for  fixing  standards  arbitrarily  or  even  for  basing 
standards  upon  what  a  majority  of  pupils  of  a  certain 
age  achieve  after  a  certain  amount  of  training,  espe- 
cially if  such  standards  are  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for 
excluding  individuals  from  further  educational  oppor- 
tunities. The  slow,  the  dull,  and  even  the  mentally  defi- 
cient should  be  given  further  training  suited  to  their 


138  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

needs,  regardless  of  their  failure  to  reach  the  usual 
standards  of  achievement. 

Even  in  economic  production  means  of  measuring  and 
testing  are  more  important  than  limitations  with  regard 
to  standards.  Foods,  medicines,  etc.,  should  be  tested 
and  labeled  according  to  the  various  substances  that 
they  contain,  but  the  fixing  by  law  of  certain  standards 
that  must  be  conformed  to  in  order  that  the  goods  may 
be  sold  is  justifiable  only  when  such  minimum  stand- 
ards are  necessary  for  the  protection  of  health.  Educa- 
tion rather  than  law  should  make  a  market  for  inferior 
products  impossible.  It  has  already  been  shown  that 
there  are  great  economic  advantages  associated  with  the 
standardizing  of  products,  but  that  there  are  also  cer- 
tain disadvantages.  In  the  case  of  human  beings  who 
are  being  educated  the  advantages  of  standardization 
would  be  much  less  if  exact  standardization  were  possi- 
ble, and  the  disadvantages  much  greater.  A  standard- 
ization of  product  means  necessarily  that,  for  the  time 
being  at  least,  there  can  be  no  change  in  the  way  of 
improving  it. 

When  education  is  the  process  and  human  beings  the 
product,  it  is  evident  that  to  adopt  means  which  pre- 
vent further  improvement  is  directly  opposed  to  the  fun- 
damental idea  of  education,  at  least  so  far  as  person- 
ality is  concerned.  There  is  some  ground  for  claiming 
that  skill  in  doing  certain  useful  things  may  profitably 
be  standardized  without  interfering  with  the  progress 
of  the  individual  in  other  directions.  It  may  be  well  to 
have  an  individual  reach  a  certain  degree  of  skill  and 
rapidity  in  penmanship  and  fix  that  as  a  habit  by  prac- 
tice instead  of  practicing  with  a  view  to  better  or  to 
more  rapid  writing. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS— GENERAL     139 

The  same  tiling  may  hold  regarding  the  skill  that 
should  be  attained  in  performing  the  operations  in- 
volved in  each  vocation.  It  would  doubtless  be  a  con- 
siderable advantage  to  employ  men  in  the  various  occu- 
pations who  would  do  a  certain  amount  of  work  of  a 
certain  quality  in  a  given  time.  This  is  done  to  some 
extent,  especially  in  more  mechanical  processes,  but  the 
natural  difference  in  human  beings  is  such  that  it  is  in 
many  instances  not  possible  or  not  economical  to  have 
all  work  according  to  the  same  standard  rate.  Where 
the  product  can  be  measured  accurately,  piece-work  is 
therefore  substituted  for  day-work,  and  each  is  paid 
according  to  the  amount  he  does  instead  of  all  being 
trained  and  required  to  do  the  same  amount.  It  would 
appear,  then,  that  even  in  vocational  education,  where 
standardization  is  most  justifiable,  there  is  little  reason 
for  attempting  to  bring  all  students  to  exactly  the  same 
standards.  Such  a  course  limits  and  perhaps  makes  im- 
possible the  attainment  of  a  higher  standard  by  persons 
of  exceptional  ability. 

In  the  case  of  non-vocational  training,  where  the 
purpose  is  to  develop  as  high  a  type  of  personality  as 
possible,  the  attempt  to  bring  all  individuals  to  the 
same  standard  has  no  justification  whatever.  The 
standard  set  is  likely  to  become  the  ideal,  and  all  ad- 
vancement on  the  part  of  both  teachers  and  pupils  is 
impeded  by  the  effort  to  develop  standardized  individ- 
uals. Nothing  has  so  interfered  with  educational  proc- 
esses and  progress  as  the  prevalent  idea  and  practice 
which  demand  that  a  certain  degree  of  attainment  shall 
be  reached  by  each  individual  before  he  completes  the 
work  of  a  grade  or  a  school  and  is  allowed  to  graduate 
or  to  take  advanced  work. 


140  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

In  short,  measurements  in  education  are  always  val- 
uable, and  standards  based  on  the  usual  amount 
achieved  after  a  certain  period  of  training  may  be  of 
very  great  use  in  testing  different  methods,  in  enlight- 
ening and  stimulating  the  pupil,  and  in  helping  the 
teacher  to  advise  him  as  to  his  further  work,  but  the 
results  can  only  be  evil  if  the  attempt  is  made  to  have 
our  schools  produce  standardized  personalities. 

The  older  the  pupils  become  and  the  more  special- 
ized the  training  that  is  beiug  given  them  in  prepara- 
tion for  certain  occupations,  the  greater  is  the  justifica- 
tion for  attempting  to  produce  a  standardized,  economic 
individual;  but  the  younger  the  children,  the  more 
general  the  training  being  given,  and  the  greater  the 
hope  of  further  progress,  the  less  justifiable  is  the  at- 
tempt to  standardize  them  in  any  respect. 

The  only  successful  and  logical  process  of  developing 
standardized  individuals  was  that  practiced  by  the  Jes- 
uit schools.  It  was  assumed  that  the  supreme  end  of 
education  was  to  develop  and  train  persons  to  be  abso- 
lutely dependable  instruments  of  the  church.  This 
meant  that  they  were  trained  to  give  up  all  personal 
desires,  submit  their  will  to  that  of  higher  authority, 
and  to  work  in  accordance  with  prescribed  methods. 
Some  will  admit  that  the  church  has  a  right  to  demand 
such  suppression  of  individuality  in  order  that  a  usable 
standardized  product  may  be  produced,  but  few  would 
say  in  these  democratic  days  that  a  state  has  any  right 
thus  to  suppress  individuality  in  order  to  produce  a 
standardized  human  product,  no  matter  how  great  the 
efficiency  brought  about  by  having  standard  workers  in 
all  lines. 

General  and  vocational  education.  In  order  to  pre- 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  GENERAL  141 

pare  the  new  generation  for  carrying  on  our  present 
civilization,  it  is  necessary,  first,  that  all  shall  be  taught 
the  things  that  need  to  be  known  by  every  member  of 
this  civilized  society,  whatever  his  occupation  or  place 
in  life.  This  may  be  called  general  education,  and  may 
be  elementary  in  character  such  as  is  needed  by  all,  or 
may  be  of  a  more  advanced  character  which  would  be 
useful  to  all  and  almost  necessary  to  some. 

Besides  this  general  information  nearly  every  one 
needs  the  special  knowledge  and  skill  that  fit  him  for 
success  in  some  vocation.  This  need  for  vocational  edu- 
cation is  very  much  greater  than  formerly.  The  occu- 
pations that  do  not  demand  special  knowledge  and 
training  now  employ  comparatively  few  persons,  while 
those  that  require  years  of  preparation  are  numerous 
and  constantly  increasing.  Vocational  education  is, 
therefore,  becoming  a  more  and  more  important  work 
of  the  schools. 

In  addition  to  general  and  vocational  education  there 
is  an  increasing  need  for  another  kind  of  education,  that 
preparing  one  for  living  in  contrast  with  the  mere  mak- 
ing of  a  living.  The  hours  of  labor,  which  were  formerly 
from  twelve  to  sixteen,  are  now  from  eight  to  twelve, 
and  even  less  in  many  occupations.  Not  only  the  leisure 
classes,  but  almost  all  classes  now  have  some  time  which 
they  can  spend  as  they  wish.  Every  man  can  satisfy  his 
desires  for  recreation,  for  social  intercourse,  and  for 
culture  to  the  extent  made  possible  by  the  means  offered 
him  and  his  capacity  for  utilizing  them.  It  has,  there- 
fore, become  an  important  function  of  the  schools  to 
educate  for  leisure,  or,  in  other  words,  to  teach  how  to 
live  after  the  means  of  living  have  been  obtained. 

To  be  properly  educated,  the  new  generation  must 


142  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

be  prepared  to  appreciate  and  help  carry  on,  by  the  best 
means  that  have  been  developed,  the  economic,  protec- 
tive, recreational,  social,  cultural,  and  moral  and  re- 
ligious activities  of  the  community.  No  person  can  be- 
come an  expert  in  all  these  lines,  but  in  order  to  take 
his  place  in  the  complex  life  of  to-day  he  must  know 
something  of  all  of  them.  The  prominence  of  these  ac- 
tivities in  the  community  and  nation,  and  the  character 
of  the  knowledge  and  training  that  will  best  prepare  in- 
dividuals for  engaging  in  and  appreciating  them,  must 
determine  what  should  be  given  in  the  way  of  general 
education.  Education  is,  therefore,  dependent  upon  so- 
ciology for  determining  its  aims  and  the  kind  of  knowl- 
edge needed,  while  psychology  can  aid  only  in  telling 
how  the  aims  prescribed  by  society  may  be  reached  and 
how  the  materials  that  social  conditions  make  useful 
may  best  be  presented  to  the  rising  generation. 

In  vocational  education  the  individual  or  his  parents 
must  decide  what  he  wishes  to  do,  while  the  nature  of 
the  occupation  and  its  stage  of  development  determine 
what  knowledge  and  skill  are  needed,  and  psychology 
shows  how  this  knowledge  and  skill  may  be  gained  with 
least  loss  of  time  and  energy. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Report  on  education  as  carried  on  in  one  or  more  primi- 
tive tribes. 

2.  Describe  the  results  if  all  education  should  cease  in  the 
United  States,  indicating  what  industries  would  first 
decline  as  decade  after  decade  passed. 

3.  Discuss  these  topics ;  (a)  How  far  does  a  classic  course 
prepare  for  the  life  of  a  past  civilization  and  science  for 
that  of  the  present  and  future  ?   {b)  Has  human  nature 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  GENERAL  143 

changed  as  much  as  the  material  means  of  living?  (c) 
Contrast  the  comparative  value  as  subject-matter  of 
(1)  ancient  history  and  present-day  politics  and  soci- 
ology ;  (2)  ancient  and  present-day  literature ;  (3) 
primitive  industries  as  advocated  by  culture-epoch  theo- 
rists and  present-day  industries  as  advocated  by  many 
practical  men. 

4.  Discuss  the  true  function  of  the  school,  considering  the 
questions  of  teaching  manual  arts,  housework,  games, 
politeness,  morals,  thrift,  hygiene,  sex  truths,  etc.  Can 
the  school  continue  to  take  on  new  duties  and  yet  do 
its  work  successfully  without  increasing  the  length  of 
the  school  day  or  year  ? 

5.  Is  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  most  value  in  a 
democratic  or  an  autocratic  nation  ?  Why  ?  Which  will 
give  greatest  eflBciency  ? 

6.  Discuss  control  by  force  or  authority  and  by  educa- 
tion in  a  nation  or  in  a  school  system  either  large  or 
small. 

7.  Compare  the  schools  of  two  states  or  two  cities,  in  one 
of  which  there  is  much  central  control  and  in  the  other 
much  local  control,  and  discuss  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each. 

8.  Is  there  any  valid  reason  for  strict  grading  and  refusal 
of  promotion  to  those  not  meeting  certain  requirements 
presented  in  the  ideal  of  "maintaining  educational 
standards  "  ?  Or  should  grading  and  promotion  be  solely 
for  the  good  of  the  individual  and  to  promote  efficiency 
of  effort  on  the  part  of  teachers  ?  Why  ? 

9.  Does  similarity  in  knowledge  and  ability  in  class  favor 
efficient  work,  or  is  the  work  as  good  or  better  when 
there  are  considerable  but  not  too  great  differences  ? 

10.  Discuss  the  relative  value  of  these  three  ways  of  deter- 
mining the  grouping  and  promotion  of  children :  (1) 
judgment  of  teacher,  (2)  examinations,  (3)  standard- 
ized, general,  and  special  tests  of  ability  and  attainment. 
Should  age  and  size  also  be  considered  ? 


144  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

11.  Is  it  necessary  that  those  who  are  grouped  together  in 
one  subject  shall  be  together  in  all  ? 

12.  Compare  the  education  needed  by  a  carpenter  and  by  a 
farmer,  that  they  may  be  good  citizens  and  successful 
in  making  a  living,  and  see  how  far  they  are  the  same 
and  where  they  differ.  What  is  needed  by  both  may  be 
regarded  as  general,  while  that  needed  by  the  one  may 
be  regarded  as  vocational.  Compare  in  a  similar  way 
the  education  needed  by  a  lawyer,  a  doctor,  a  mechani- 
cal engineer,  and  an  architect,  and  judge  as  to  what  ia 
general  and  what  is  vocational.  Does  each  need  to  know 
anything  of  the  work  of  the  other  ?  Why  ? 


CHAPTER  Xn 

EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  — ELEMENTARY 

General  character  of  elementary  education.  Ele- 
mentary education,  required  by  law  in  this  country, 
usually  extends  from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 
In  most  places  this  education  has  been  given  in  eight 
years  of  school  work,  although  a  few  have  nine  years, 
and  in  some  places,  where  the  children  are  not  admitted 
until  seven  years  of  age,  the  elementary  course  is  cov- 
ered in  seven  years.  These  eight  years  of  work  have 
;been  arranged  with  the  idea  of  including  what  all  chil- 
dren shottld  learn  in  order  to  take  their  places  as  citizens. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  statistics  show  that  about  half 
of  the  children  leave  school  without  having  taken  more 
than  six  years  of  the  work  outlined  for  the  elementary 
schools.  This  condition  is  likely  to  continue  for  some 
time.  Whatever  knowledge  or  training  it  is  necessary 
that  all  citizens  should  have  must  be  provided  in  six 
years  of  the  elementary  course  or  a  large  number  of 
persons  wiQ  leave  school  without  having  received  the 
education  necessary  to  prepare  them  for  the  duties  of 
the  most  humble  citizen. 

This  truth  must  be  recognized  regardless  of  the  claim 
that  the  course  is  already  too  full  for  the  work  to  be 
done  properly  in  the  time  required.  Still  further  must 
we  disregard  the  claim  of  the  secondary  schools  that  the 
cliildren  must  be  so  prepared  that  they  can  effectively 
pursue  the  studies  of  the  secondary  course.  Nothing 
must  be  required  in  the  first  six  years  of  elementary 


146  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

work  that  is  useful  only  or  chiefly  to  those  who  are  to 
have  a  further  education.  Whatever  is  necessary  for 
such  children  should  be  arranged  for  in  grades  beyond 
the  sixth.  The  first  six  years  of  work  must  be  devoted 
exdttsively  to  the  learning  of  what  is  necessary  or  of 
most  value  to  all  persons  whatever  their  occupation 
may  be  and  however  far  they  may  later  carry  their 
education.  In  the  past,  courses  of  study  have  been  ar- 
ranged chiefly  with  the  idea  that  the  elementary  course 
must  prepare  for  the  secondary  course  and  that  for 
higher  education.  This  idea  must  now  be  subordinated 
to  that  of  social  needs. 

In  planning  the  first  six  years  of  work,  therefore, 
little  or  no  account  should  be  taken  of  what  some  of 
the  children  will  do  in  the  higher  grades.  The  sole  aim 
in  planning  the  course  of  study  should  be  to  provide 
that  which  is  most  useful  to  all  citizens  of  our  Republic. 
This  demands  a  careful  study  of  the  social  life  of  to-day 
and  the  selection  of  study  material  with  sole  reference 
to  its  usefulness  either  in  making  a  living  or  contrib- 
uting to  the  fullness  and  joy  of  life. 

General  symbol  knowledge,  or  reading  and  writing. 
The  thing  that  is  most  needed  by  every  one  in  this  age 
is  facility  in  the  understanding  and  use  of  the  symbols 
by  means  of  which  knowledge  is  preserved  and  commu- 
nicated. The  oral  symbols  of  language  are  fairly  well 
learned  by  native  children  before  they  enter  school. 
Foreign  children  sometimes  need  to  be  taught  them. 
The  present  policy  of  requiring  all  instruction  to  be 
given  in  English  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  preser- 
vation of  our  national  unity.  Only  in  this  way  is  it 
possible  to  make  one  nation  of  the  diverse  peoples  com- 
ing to  our  shores. 


--/ 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  ELEMENTARY        147 

The  written  symbols  of  language  are  not  usually 
known  before  the  child  reaches  school.  The  most  essen- 
tial thing  in  learning  this  visual  language  is  that  ideas 
shall  be  associated  with  the  visual  forms  so  closely  that 
the  child  can  quickly  get  thought  from  the  printed  page. 
It  is  desirable  but  less  essential  that  he  should  know 
the  correspondence  between  visual  and  oral  symbols  so 
as  to  be  able  to  pronounce  the  words  that  he  sees.  It 
is  not  at  all  essential  that  he  should  be  able  to  read 
aloud  fluently  and  effectively.  The  average  person  to- 
day reads  silently  a  hundred  times  as  much  as  he  reads 
aloud.  Facility  in  getting  thought  from  the  printed  page 
is,  therefore,  the  most  important  thing  to  be  acquired  in 
the  first  years  of  the  elementary  school.  Some  children 
attain  facility  in  this  respect  six  times  as  great  as  that  of 
others. 

Unfortunately,  most  of  the  methods  of  teaching  read- 
ing have  tended  to  make  children  read  slowly  rather 
than  rapidly  and  to  give  more  attention  to  the  relation 
between  letters  and  sounds  than  to  the  thoughts  asso- 
ciated with  the  words.  Phonics  may  help  in  oral  read- 
ing7  but  itEey  are  a  hindrance  to  rapid  thought-getting. 

Since  a  large  part  of  what  is  to  be  learned  to-day  can 
be  gained  only  through  the  medium  of  words,  language 
ability  performs  the  same  function,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, as  does  the  ability  to  use  tools.  The  ability  to 
write  is  of  far  less  importance,  but  sufficient  knowledge 
to  read  writing  and  to  write  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  correctness  and  rapidity  may  be  regarded  as  essen- 
tial for  all.  The  invention  of  typewriters  and  other  me- 
chanical means  of  reproducing  print  makes  great  skill 
in  writing  less  important  than  formerly. 

To  express  thought  in  visual  form  demands  ability 


148  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

to  spell  and  to  punctuate  as  well  as  to  handle  a  pen. 
An  unnecessary  amount  of  time  has  doubtless  been  spent 
upon  spelling.  The  average  native  adult  citizen  who 
has  been  through  the  grades  knows  by  sight  or  sound 
ten  or  fifteen  thousand  words,  but  he  rarely  or  never 
has  occasion  to  write  more  than  a  fifth  of  that  number. 
A  person  who  knows  how  to  spell  three  thousand  com- 
mon words,  and  who  knows  how  to  look  up  the  spelling 
of  words  in  the  dictionary,  has  sufficient  knowledge  of 
V  spelling  for  the  ordinary  citizen's  use.  If  the  child  learns 
V'punctuation  by  practice  rather  than  by  the  study  of  rules, 
he  can  acquire  practical  efficiency  in  a  very  short  time. 

Economic  education.  In  these  days,  when  the  means 
of  subsistence  and  comfort  are  obtained  almost  wholly 
by  indirect  means  through  some  form  of  economic  ac- 
tivity instead  of  being  secured  directly  from  earth's 
resources,  economic  education  is  especially  needed.  In 
the  elementary  school  this  teaching  should  not  have  for 
its  aim  the  purpose  of  preparing  for  economic  effort, 
or,  in  other  words,  should  not  be  vocational,  but  should 
enable  the  children  to  understand  the  economic  proc- 
esses by  which  the  material  needs  of  man  are  supplied. 
The  child  should  be  made  familiar  with  the  industries 
of  his  own  community  and  also  to  some  extent  of  other 
communities  and  countries  and  should  learn  of  the  ways 
in  which  commerce  is  carried  on.  Since  money  is  the 
means  of  measuring  the  value  of  economic  products  and 
facilitating  the  exchange  of  one  for  another,  much  of 
the  education  in  economics  may  be  associated  with  a 
study  of  the  uses  of  money.  Every  one  should  know 
something  regarding  the  manner  in  which  money  is  ob- 
tained and  the  ways  in  which  it  may  most  profitably  be 
used.  This  of  course  requires  some  knowledge  of  num- 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  ELEMENTARY       149 

bers  and  some  facility  in  making  the  calculations  in- 
volved in  various  common  business  transactions.  The 
fact  that  money  cannot  be  used  without  counting  and 
computing  is  the  chief  reason  for  the  teaching  of  arith- 
metic in  the  elementary  schools.  It  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  the  child  during  the  first  six  years  should  at- 
tempt to  gain  a  systematic  knowledge  of  arithmetic  as 
a  science.  It  does  mean  that  he  should  know  more  about 
the  transactions  with  which  numbers  are  concerned  than 
most  children  do  to-day. 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  every  individual 
should  know  a  great  many  of  the  facts  of  numbers  or 
be  able  to  perform  arithmetical  operations  with  great 
rapidity.  The  average  person  spends  very  little  time 
after  he  leaves  school  in  arithmetical  calculations  as  a 
necessary  element  in  his  daily  life.  He  should,  however, 
acquire  a  few  facts  of  numbers,  learn  how  to  compute 
others  mentally,  and  how  to  perform  longer  operations 
on  paper.  He  should  have  some  experience  in  perform- 
ing many  of  the  calcvdations  which  are  common  in  his 
community.  Special  knowledge  and  skill  in  calculation 
may  be  provided  later  for  those  who  need  it. 

The  ability  to  compute  constitutes  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  economic  training  needed  by  every  one. 
Money  represents  a  certain  amount  of  effort  expended 
and  the  possibility  of  satisfying  various  desires.  The 
child  frequently  sees  money  being  received  and  spent 
by  others  and  he  also  has  had  some  experience  with  it 
himself.  Means  should  be  taken  to  impress  him  with 
the  truth  as  to  the  proper  relations  between  work  per- 
formed and  money  received  and  the  kinds  and  amount 
of  satisfaction  that  may  be  obtained  in  expending  it  in 
various  ways. 


150  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Economic  training  in  school  may  well  begin  with  the 
study  of  the  child's  own  actual  and  possible  experiences 
with  money.  After  a  report  as  to  how  the  children  get 
money  and  how  they  spend  it,  various  problems  may 
be  worked  in  discussing  the  question  of  how  a  boy  or 
girl  may  best  spend,  say  fifty  cents  a  week.  Each  one 
may  figure  out  how  much  this  would  be  in  a  year  and 
indicate  just  how  much  he  thinks  it  would  be  well  to 
use  for  different  purposes. 

If  it  is  thought  best  that  some  of  it  should  be  saved 
for  the  future,  the  various  ways  of  keeping  money 
should  be  discussed  and  the  comparative  advantages  of 
a  toy  bank,  a  savings  bank,  a  cooperative  bank,  postal 
savings,  and  any  other  facilities  for  saving  that  are 
offered  in  the  community,  should  be  studied. 

The  child  should  also  study  the  financial  problems  of 
his  own  home,  finding  the  cost  of  various  things  and 
the  weekly,  monthly,  or  yearly  cost  of  the  amounts 
used.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  renting  as 
compared  with  owning  a  house,  of  keeping  hens  and 
cultivating  a  garden  versus  buying  the  products,  of 
buying  clothing  ready-made  or  buying  the  material  and 
making  it,  etc.,  etc.  The  children  may  also  plan  how 
a  family  with  a  certain  income  shall  spend  its  money, 
making  out  with  some  detail  the  weekly  budget. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  taxes  paid  by  the  father  and 
the  public  expenditures  in  the  conununity  for  schools, 
roads,  and  other  purposes  furnish  good  material  for 
obtaining  valuable  economic  and  arithmetical  training. 

Some  time  may  also  be  spent  in  discussing  the  prob- 
lems and  performing  the  mathematical  operations  re- 
quired in  various  occupations  of  the  neighborhood.  In 
this  connection  the  teacher  should  not  fail  to  consider 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  ELEMENTARY       151 

the  relative  advantages  of  saving  and  buying  for  cash 
as  compared  with  going  in  debt  and  buying  on  the  in- 
staUment  plan. 

Protective  education.  In  connection  with  the  eco- 
nomic training  thus  described,  there  will  inevitably  be 
gained  some  knowledge  of  the  civic  institutions  con- 
cerned in  protection  against  criminals,  against  fire, 
''^  disease,  and  accident,  and  with  the  means  by  which 
mails  are  handled,  roads  kept  in  order,  and  water, 
sewer,  and  other  conveniences  furnished  by  the  local 
and  national  governments. 

Hygiene  should  receive  attention  that  personal  health 
may  be  preserved  and  that  every  citizen  may  cooperate 
in  all  movements  for  better  health  conditions  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Questions  of  public  interest  to  the  community  and 
to  the  state  or  nation  should  be  discussed  in  school  in 
order  that  the  children  may  be  better  prepared  for 
considering  such  questions  when  they  become  responsi- 
ble members  of  society.  Such  teaching  as  this  will  be 
much  more  effective  if  it  is  associated  with  more  or  less 
public  work  on  the  part  of  the  children  in  keeping  the 
schoolhouse  and  grounds  in  good  order  and  in  provid- 
ing healthful  and  pleasant  conditions  in  the  school  and 
in  the  community.  Every  form  of  self-government  in 
the  schools  also  helps  toward  good  citizenship. 

Cultural  education.  The  elementary-school  pupil 
should  become  familiar  not  only  with  his  economic  and 
civic  environment,  but  also  with  his  natural  environ- 
ment. To  this  end  he  should  make  excursions  in  order 
to  know  the  location  of  the  important  objects  in  the 
neighborhood  and  to  observe  plant  and  animal  life  more 
closely  and  understandingly.  In  other  words,  he  should 


152  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

study  objects  of  nature,  the  industries,  and  the  geog- 
raphy of  his  own  neighborhood,  and  thus  get  a  better 
knowledge  of  how  all  its  natural  advantages  are  util- 
ized by  individuals  and  groups  of  persons. 

The  studies  thus  far  indicated  are  essential,  but  they 
lack  breadth  of  view  and  illuminating  contrast.  In 
order  to  get  this  some  time  must  be  devoted  to  t>5  geog- 
raphy and  history  of  other  places  and  peoples,  in  such 
studies  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  facts  and  events 
that  either  contrast  sharply  with  those  of  the  home  life 
or  those  that  are  connected  with  the  life  of  the  neigh- 
borhood and  give  a  broader  view  from  which  to  inter- 
pret its  meaning.  Instruction  in  these  lines  needs  above 
all  things  to  appeal  to  the  imagination  so  that  the  chil- 
dren will  mentally  visit  other  parts  of  the  earth  and 
observe  the  actions  of  people  of  distant  times  and 
places.  Just  what  facts  are  learned  and  remembered  is 
of  much  less  importance  than  that  the  pupils  shall  be 
broadened  by  means  of  this  mediated  experience  with 
other  lands  and  other  people. 

It  is  also  desirable,  as  it  always  has  been,  that  the 
young  should  become  familiar  with  the  previous  history 
of  the  group  to  which  they  belong.  No  course  in  his- 
tory can  be  satisfactory  that  does  not  give  the  child 
some  knowledge  of  the  persons  and  events  that  have 
been  influential  in  bringing  about  the  social  conditions 
under  which  he  is  living. 

As  wide  an  interest  as  possible  should  be  cultivated 
in  art,  science,  literature,  and  music.  This  training 
should  be  chiefly  to  develop  appreciation.  Whatever  is 
done  in  the  way  of  production  of  artistic  drawings, 
elegant  writing,  or  pleasing  music  by  the  children, 
should  not  be  done  so  much  with  the  idea  of  making 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  ELEMENTARY       153 

them  skillful  in  such  production  as  with  that  of  making 
them  more  appreciative  of  what  good  work  in  those 
lines  really  means.  Children  should  be  given  frequent 
opportunities  of  hearing  good  music  and  seeing  fine 
pictures  for  the  sake  of  developing  pleasurable  appre- 
ciation and  good  taste.  This  will  furnish,  aU  their 
lives,  a  source  of  enjoyment  and  a  stimulus  to  further 
development.  Those  who  have  talent  or  opportunity 
may  later  devote  themselves  to  the  production  of  artis- 
tic things.  All  should,  however,  receive  some  training 
that  will  help  them  to  make  themselves,  their  clothes,  and 
their  home  surroundings  more  beautiful  and  pleasing. 

Recreational  and  social  education.  It  should  be 
assumed  that  every  one  is  to  have  some  leisure,  partly 
because  he  is  more  efficient  when  he  does  not  work  all 
the  time  and  partly  because  the  needs  of  his  higher 
nature  demand  what  is  not  obtained  in  work.  Children 
should  be  taught  by  observation  and  experience  not 
only  what  it  means  to  work,  but  also  what  it  means  to 
rest  and  to  play.  They  should  be  given  experience  in 
playing  a  great  variety  of  games  so  that  they  will  know 
how  to  spend  their  leisure  time  and  how  to  help  others 
engage  in  pleasurable  activity. 

In  learning  to  play  games  the  children  will  inevi- 
tably get  a  great  deal  of  social  training  which  will  en- 
able them  to  know  how  to  react  to  other  people  and 
cooperate  with  them  in  the  enjoyment  of  life.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  social  training  thus  obtained,  children  should 
also  learn  how  to  work  with  others  for  a  common  end 
as  well  as  how  to  work  by  themselves.  Group  work 
should  be  provided  as  well  as  individual  work,  in  such 
a  way  that  each  will  contribute  to  a  common  result. 
This  can  be  done  with  many  of  the  subjects  studied 


164  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  especially  in  all  things  that  are  done  for  the  good 
of  the  school.  Incidentally  all  the  activities  of  the  school 
will  furnish  opportunity  for  that  form  of  social  training 
indicated  by  the  word  politeness. 

Moral  and  religious  education.  The  moral  training 
given  during  the  elementary  course  should  be  almost 
entirely  incidental.  A  few  special  lessons  may  be  help- 
ful in  connection  with  general  exercises,  and  history 
and  literature  may  sometimes  be  taught  with  special 
reference  to  the  formation  of  ideals  of  conduct  and 
character.  Much  of  the  moral  training,  however,  should 
come  in  connection  with  cooperative  and  properly  regu- 
lated activities  of  work  and  play,  in  which  each  indi- 
vidual feels  that  in  doing  his  part  well,  he  is  contrib- 
uting to  the  success  and  pleasure  of  the  entire  group. 
In  order  that  the  moral  training  may  be  of  the  best 
character,  a  large  proportion  of  the  competitions  car- 
ried on  should  be  between  groups  rather  than  between 
individuals. 

Religious  training  in  this  country  must  be  carried 
on  largely  if  not  wholly  by  other  institutions  than  the 
school.  The  fact  that  there  are  great  differences  in  re- 
ligious beliefs,  and  the  sentiment  in  this  country  that 
no  person  should  be  interfered  with  in  his  choice  and 
practice  of  religion,  make  it  impossible  to  give  religious 
instruction  in  our  public  schools.  The  most  that  the 
schools  can  do  is  to  maintain  respect  for  religion  and 
religious  exercises  of  all  kinds  and  perhaps  allow  cer- 
tain hours  and  credits  for  religious  instruction  given 
by  representatives  of  the  churches. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  ELEMENTARY       155 

EXERCISES 

1.  Abandon  entirely  for  the  moment  the  idea  that  the 
purpose  of  studying  any  subject  is  to  prepare  for  later 
school  work  of  any  kind,  then  do  one  or  more  of  the 
following :  (a)  make  a  list  of  subjects  that  should  be 
taught,  to  prepare  for  engaging  in  the  community  life 
of  to-day,  stating  why  they  are  valuable ;  or  {b)  tell 
just  what  and  how  much  in  some  one  subject  should  be 
taught  because  of  the  use  that  will  be  made  of  it  by  the 
children  when  they  take  their  places  as  self-directing 
members  of  the  community ;  or  (c)  make  some  research 
as  to  knowledge  that  is  being  used  by  the  people  of 
your  commimity ;  e.g.,  how  many  and  what  words  does 
every  one  need  to  know  how  to  spell  ?  or  what  facts  of 
geography  or  history  are  necessary  or  helpful  in  reading 
the  newspapers  ? 

2.  Discuss  the  comparative  advantages  to  every  one  of 
being  able  to  read  well  orally  or  to  read  silently  with 
rapidity  and  good  understanding,  and  the  methods  by 
which  each  form  of  ability  may  be  secured. 

3.  Test  the  economic  knowledge  of  fifth-grade  children  by 
asking  how  various  articles  are  produced,  their  cost ; 
the  wages  received  in  various  occupations  and  ways  of 
safe-keeping  and  investing  money,  with  a  view  to  learn- 
ing how  adequate  present-day  economic  teaching  is,  and 

with  the  idea  of  determining  how  much  arithmetical 

knowledge  is  necessary. 

4.  Similar  studies  of  educational  value  may  be  made 
by  asking  where  the  money  comes  from  that  pays  the 
fireman,  the  postman,  etc. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  facts  of  geography  and  history  you  think 
that  every  one  should  know,  then  test  a  number  of  peo- 
ple and  see  whether  all  know  them  and  if  they  suffer 
much  inconvenience  if  they  do  not. 

6.  Ask  the  children  of  a  sixth  grade  to  write  the  names  of 
all  the  games  they  know  how  to  play,  or  of  the  songs, 


156  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

pictures,  or  stories  they  like,  or  make  plans  for  devel- 
oping the  appreciation  of  good  literature,  pictures,  and 
music. 

7.  How  can  elementary-school  children  be  given  ideals  and 
habits  of  moral  action  in  the  school  ? 

8.  How  may  religious  education  best  be  provided  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

EDUCATIONAL    NEEDS   AND   ACTIVITIES 
INTERMEDIATE  AND  SECONDARY 

Specialization.  Looked  at  from  the  sociological  point 
of  view,  elementary  education  is  that  which  every  one 
needs,  while  intermediate  or  secondary  education  is  that 
given  to  those  young  people  in  the  community  who  are 
80  situated  that  they  can  have  further  training  and  who 
will  probably  engage  in  some  form  of  occupation  de- 
manding more  than  ordinary  knowledge  and  skill.  They 
may  also  perhaps  occupy  a  somewhat  different  social 
and  civic  position. 

This  intermediate  and  secondary  education  should 
occupy  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  eight  years. 
Heretofore  in  this  country  it  has  consisted  chiefly  of 
four  years  of  high-school  work.  The  indications  now 
are  that  the  grade  work  of  two  or  three  years  formerly 
counted  as  elementary  will  be  specialized  and  counted 
as  intermediate,  while  high-school  work  in  some  places 
is  being  extended  to  include  a  portion  of  the  education 
now  given  in  colleges.  It  is  also  specialized  according 
as  the  pupils  are  to  have  much  or  little  further  educa- 
tion and  according  to  the  occupation  in  which  they  are 
to  engage.  In  general  the  age  of  pupils  taking  inters 
mediate  and  secondary  education  is  from  about  twelve 
to  about  eighteen. 

In  Germany  general  elementary  education  ends  at 
about  nine  or  ten  years  of  age,  after  which  work  is  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  the  additional  education  to  be 


158  FUNDAMENTALS  OP  SOCIOLOGY 

received  and  the  future  vocation  of  the  pupils.  Those 
who  are  destined  for  occupations  requiring  only  slight 
knowledge  and  skill,  take  a  course  which  is  completed 
at  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  while  those  who  are  to 
enter  the  more  skilled  industries  take  a  course  of  study 
involving  from  seven  to  nine  years  of  work,  which  work 
prepares  them  for  entering  the  higher  technology  schools, 
while  those  preparing  for  the  professions  enter  upon  a 
nine  years'  course  of  study  fitting  them  for  university 
work. 

As  the  courses  are  arranged  in  Germany,  a  pupil 
who  has  once  entered  upon  any  one  of  these  three 
courses  cannot  change  to  either  of  the  others  without 
considerable  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time.  After  he 
has  completed  one  of  them,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
get  any  other  place  in  industrial,  social,  and  civic  life 
than  that  for  which  his  course  of  study  has  prepared 
him. 

In  this  country  conditions  have  been  quite  different. 
Until  recently  the  training  given  in  intermediate  and 
secondary  schools  was  general  in  character,  preparing 
for  no  special  occupation  or  position  in  life,  although 
leading  more  toward  the  professions  than  toward  the 
industries.  This  was  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the 
secondary  schools  had  to  give  proficiency  in  certain 
lines  in  order  that  their  graduates  might  be  admitted 
to  college.  This  demand  on  the  part  of  the  colleges, 
being  the  only  one  strongly  and  clearly  made  upon  the 
high  schools,  dominated  all  the  work  of  the  secondary 
schools.  A  very  marked  change  has,  however,  taken 
place  very  recently  in  public  sentiment,  and  now  there 
is  a  very  distinct  and  imperative  demand  not  only  that 
secondary  schools  shall  provide  the  education  called  for 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  INTERMEDIATE     159 

by  colleges,  but  that  they  shall  provide  suitable  training 
for  the  far  larger  group  of  young  people  who  will  never 
enter  college.  This  demand  has  arisen  partly  because 
statistics  have  shown  that  only  a  small  percentage  of 
students  go  to  college  and  partly  because  specialization 
has  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  the  need  of  spe- 
cial training  for  different  occupations,  industrial  as  well 
as  professional,  is  felt  more  than  ever  before.  It  is  be- 
coming harder  to  obtain  employment  in  any  of  the 
higher  occupations  unless  one  has  had  special  prepara- 
tion for  it. 

The  special  training  demanded  of  every  worker  gives 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  industries,  but  it 
greatly  limits  the  development  of  the  individual.  He 
must  decide  at  an  early  age  what  he  is  to  do  and 
begin  specializing  preparatory  to  that  work.  Once 
settled  in  a  given  occupation,  incentive  and  ambition 
must  be  very  great  if  he  takes  the  time  to  prepare 
himself  for  engaging  in  another  occupation  and  taking 
another  station  in  life.  In  this  country  conditions  have 
been  such  that  people  who  have  not  had  special  train- 
ing could  obtain  employment  and  have  the  chance  to 
show  whether  they  could  succeed.  This  has  tended  to 
induce  the  more  able  and  ambitious  individuals  to  try 
to  better  themselves  by  changing  from  one  occupation 
to  another.  Probably  few  of  the  successful  men  of  the 
passing  generation  have  always  been  engaged  in  the 
same  line  of  work.  Many  of  them  have  changed  a 
number  of  times  and  to  occupations  of  a  wholly  differ- 
ent character  from  that  in  which  they  began. 

The  way  in  which  the  schools  are  conducted  will 
have  a  great  deal  to  do  in  the  future  with  determining 
whether  this  condition  of  facility  of  change  of  occupa- 


160  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

tion  shall  continue  or  whether  we  shall  approach  closer 
to  the  German  system  requiring  early  choice  of  occu- 
pation with  careful  training  for  it  and  very  little  pos- 
sibility of  successfully  changing  to  another.  Efficiency 
of  production  may  seem  to  demand  the  German  system, 
but  the  development  of  a  high  order  of  human  beings 
in  a  democratic  country  would  seem  to  urge  that  there 
should  not  be  too  early  specialization  nor  too  definite 
fixing  of  the  occupation  and  position  in  life  of  our  citi- 
zens. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  it  is  not  too  early 
to  allow  some  specialization.  Some  of  the  work  should 
be  the  same  for  all,  but  those  who  wish  to  do  so  should 
be  allowed  to  specialize  in  commercial  or  industrial 
lines,  while  others  may  give  more  attention  to  general, 
scientific,  or  literary  training. 

The  work  of  the  high  school  should,  however,  be  so 
arranged  that  pupils  who  have  begun  to  specialize  in 
one  of  these  lines  shall  not  find  it  difficult  to  take  up 
work  in  another  line.  In  order  that  this  may  be  the 
case,  school  men  must  give  up  the  idea,  very  common 
among  them,  that  a  certain  sort  of  preparation  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  order  that  certain  subjects  may  be 
profitably  taken  up.  Experiments  show  that  with  a 
slight  change  in  the  method  of  treating  subjects,  the 
order  in  which  they  are  pursued  may  be  varied  almost 
indefinitely  without  interfering  with  success.  Arith- 
metic may  precede  geometry,  but  certain  portions  of  it 
at  least  may  just  as  well  or  better  follow  geometry,  and 
a  student  who  has  had  no  algebra  does  not  necessarily 
have  any  special  difficulty  with  geometry.  For  a  simi- 
lar reason  the  boy  who  has  studied  commercial  arith- 
metic may  be  just  as  well  prepared  for  algebra  as  the 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  INTERMEDIATE     161 

boy  who  has  studied  mensuration  in  connection  with 
manual  training,  while  both  of  these  individuals,  with- 
out formal  grammar,  may  be  able  to  take  up  German, 
Latin,  or  French  nearly  as  well  as  the  literary  student. 
If  practical  equivalents  of  subjects  and  variability  in 
order  of  taking  them  are  recognized,  then  children  will 
not  be  compelled  to  continue  a  course  upon  which  they 
have  entered,  but  may  change  to  one  that  is  better 
suited  to  their  interests  and  abilities.  In  so  doing  they 
may  lose  something  in  continuity,  but  they  gain  in 
breadth  and  variety.  The  problem  of  teaching  in  the 
same  class  pupils  who  have  been  differently  trained, 
presents  some  difficulties,  but  difficulties  that  no  wide- 
awake teacher,  who  studies  the  individuality  of  hia 
pupils,  will  find  great  trouble  in  overcoming. 

If  high  schools  are  so  organized  that  any  pupil  may 
be  admitted  to  any  course  in  the  high  school,  regard- 
less of  how  he  specialized  in  the  grades,  we  shall  have 
an  educational  system  favoring  later  choice  and  greater 
freedom  of  change,  while  if  we  put  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  changing  from  one  line  of  specialization  to 
another,  by  insisting  that  certain  subjects  must  be 
taken  preparatory  to  entering  upon  certain  courses,  we 
shall  assist,  by  our  educational  system,  in  bringing 
about  the  condition  that  exists  in  Germany,  where 
occupations  must  be  chosen  early,  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
changed. 

General  and  vocational  education.  Until  recently 
the  public  schools  attempted  to  give  no  vcicational 
training  whatever.  Now  it  is  generally  admitted  that 
specialization  of  industries  demands  such  training  more 
than  ever  before  and  that  it  is  being  given  by  the  home 
and  by  the  apprentice  system  less  than  formerly.   The 


162  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

school,  the  chief  educational  institution,  must  there- 
fore take  up  the  work  of  vocational  education.  Inter- 
mediate and  secondary  schools  must  perform  this 
function  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  people,  because 
only  a  few,  comparatively,  take  the  higher  education. 

The  general  book  education  of  the  schools  has  been  so 
different  from  the  vocational  education  demanded  by  the 
industries  that  unless  the  work  of  the  present  secondary 
schools  is  greatly  modified  and  extended,  a  new  type 
of  schools  must  be  established.  Some  have  advocated 
the  estabHshment  of  an  entirely  separate  system  of  vo- 
cational schools.  It  is  claimed  that  to  introduce  voca- 
tional studies  unduly  complicates  the  problem  of  sec- 
ondary schools,  and,  moreover,  that  vocational  education 
will  necessarily  be  inefficient  because  the  teachers  have 
all  been  trained  in  scholastic  rather  than  industrial 
lines. 

There  is  truth  in  these  claims,  but  other  things  must 
also  be  considered.  Those  individuals  who  take  occu- 
pational training  for  work  above  that  of  the  common 
laborer  need  more  general  education  than  is  provided 
by  the  elementary  schools.  They  need  it  as  a  condition 
for  success  in  their  occupation,  in  order  to  know  how 
to  spend  their  leisure  time  profitably,  and  in  order  to 
take  their  proper  position  in  the  community  as  semi- 
leaders.  Such  general  education  will  not  be  given  in 
vocational  schools  taught  by  those  who  have  been  trained 
in  the  vocations  only.  If  other  teachers  are  employed, 
the  work  of  the  schools  giving  general  education  will 
be  duplicated. 

Again,  if  the  schools  for  vocational  education  and  the 
secondary  schools  for  general  education  are  entirely 
separate,  neither  students  nor  teachers  will  have  much 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — INTERMEDIATE     163 

cliance  for  associating  with  those  of  the  other  type  of 
schools  and  learning  of  the  work  that  they  do  and  how 
it  is  being  done.  This  will  increase  the  tendency  to 
specialization,  make  it  difficult  for  an  individual  to 
change  from  one  type  of  education  to  another,  and 
make  more  prominent  the  distinction  between  different 
classes  of  people.  The  teachers  in  one  system  of  schools 
will  continue  to  be  scholastic  and  impractical  and  in 
the  other  practical  and  uncultured. 

The  immediate  results  of  separate  vocational  schools 
would  perhaps  be  better  so  far  as  the  vocational  train- 
ing is  concerned,  but  the  more  remote  results  upon 
pupils  and  teachers  and  as  regards  general  social  con- 
ditions would  probably  be  unfortunate.  The  ends  de- 
sired in  secondary  education,  of  giving  some  individuals 
a  good  deal  of  general  education  and  some  practical  edu- 
cation and  others  a  good  deal  of  practical,  vocational 
education  and  some  general  or  cultural  education,  can 
better  be  accomplished  by  correlated  school  and  com- 
munity life  than  by  special  kinds  of  schools  conducted 
with  little  reference  to  the  life  of  the  community. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  accomplishing  this  is  by 
having  pupils  engage  in  occupations  of  the  community 
before  they  leave  school,  or  by  having  them  go  to  school 
after  they  have  taken  up  some  occupation.  The  first 
method  is  represented  by  practical-arts  schools  and  by 
part-time  schools,  and  the  second,  by  evening  and  con- 
tinuation schools.  Both  are  valuable,  but  the  most 
promising  line  of  development  in  this  country  at  pres- 
ent is  probably  that  of  practical-arts  and  part-time 
schools. 

In  the  practical-arts  school  as  it  is  now  developing, 
things  are  done  not  for  the  sake  of  practice  in  doing, 


164  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

as  in  the  old-time  manual-art  and  trade  school,  but 
because  there  is  a  need  that  the  things  shall  be  done. 
Besides  doing  things  about  the  institution  that  are 
needed,  things  of  economic  value  are  made  and  used  or 
sold.  This  gives  a  motive  and  reality  to  work  that 
mere  practice  does  not.  Care  must  be  exercised,  how- 
ever, to  see  that  the  economic  idea  shall  not  overshadow 
the  educational.  Such  a  school  cannot  be  entirely  self- 
supporting  and  the  educational  side  will  suffer  if  there 
is  an  attempt  to  make  it  so.  The  idea  should  be  kept  in 
mind  that  it  is  primarily  a  school  in  which  education  is 
obtained  by  doing  real  things  and  that  it  is  only  second- 
arily an  economic  institution. 

The  part-time  school  incAritably  means  a  close  corre- 
lation between  the  schools  and  the  industries  of  the 
community.  The  managers  of  the  industries  of  the 
community  must  however  favor  such  a  union  of  in- 
dustrial practice  with  school  instruction  or  the  schools 
cannot  establish  part-time  courses  successfully.  The 
chief  change  demanded  in  the  industries  is,  that  two 
persons  shall  be  employed  instead  of  one  for  each  kind 
of  work.  One  will  work  either  a  half-day  or  a  week, 
then  the  other  wiU  take  his  place  the  rest  of  the  day 
or  the  next  week.  In  school,  each  one,  during  the 
period  when  he  is  not  at  work,  will  receive  certain 
general  training  and  some  special  training  connected 
with  the  occupation  in  which  he  is  engaged.  For  the 
younger  pupils  in  the  less  skilled  occupations  the  half- 
day  plan  is  probably  better,  whUe  for  older  pupils  and 
the  more  difficult  vocations,  the  weekly  plan  is  more 
feasible  and  perhaps  as  good. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  this  system  over  that  of 
establishing  trade  schools  is,  that  the  schools  are  saved 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — INTERMEDIATE     165 

the  very  great  expense  of  providing  the  shops  and 
machinery  necessary  to  practical  training  in  many  of 
the  trades.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  difference  also  in 
the  mental  attitude  and  effort  of  students  who  are 
actually  engaged  in  an  occupation  as  compared  with 
those  who  are  carrying  on  shop  practice  in  preparation 
for  actual  work.  There  is  also  the  economic  advantage 
that  persons  of  small  means  can,  by  means  of  the  half- 
time  system,  obtain  much  more  education  than  they 
can  by  the  other  system  in  which  they  have  no  oppor- 
tunity to  earn  anything. 

Great  care  must  be  taken,  however,  in  conducting  a 
part-time  system  of  vocational  education,  that  the  edu- 
cational idea  shall  be  more  prominent  than  that  of  get- 
ting immediate  economic  results.  If  such  schools  are 
dominated  by  the  economic  idea,  the  school  work  is 
made  secondary  to  the  industry  and  the  chief  aim  in 
the  industry  is  to  get  as  large  a  product  as  possible, 
regardless  of  the  effect  upon  the  workers.  This  may  re- 
sult in  having  the  pupils  confined  to  one  kind  of  work 
instead  of  being  changed  from  one  process  to  another, 
and  it  may  also  result  in  their  spending  so  much  time  in 
shop  and  in  school  that  they  have  not  sufficient  time  for 
play  and  for  general  physical  and  mental  development. 

From  the  standpoint  of  pedagogy  the  advantages  of 
the  part-time  system  are  considerable.  There  is  not 
only  a  greater  interest  in  both  kinds  of  work  if  they 
are  properly  correlated,  but,  as  recent  studies  show, 
there  is  much  greater  saving  of  energy  when  principles 
and  practice  are  brought  close  together  than  when  they 
are  gained  separately. 

General  and  vocational  courses.  Every  community 
should  provide  both  vocational  and  general  culture  edu- 


166  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

cation  so  far  as  possible,  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  the 
young  people  of  the  community.  The  vocational  train- 
ing required  differs  greatly  with  the  locality.  The  gen- 
eral culture  education  needed  in  all  sections  of  this 
country  is  more  similar.  It  is  of  the  same  type  as  that 
given  in  the  elementary  schools,  but  more  extensive. 

The  problem  of  providing  without  too  great  expense 
for  the  various  forms  of  vocational  education  that  may 
be  needed,  and  for  different  cultural  interests,  is  not 
so  difficult  in  the  large  cities  as  in  the  smaller  commu- 
nities. Without  employing  too  many  teachers  or  requir- 
ing each  teacher  to  deal  with  too  great  a  variety  of 
subjects,  it  is  possible  in  the  cities  to  provide  for  all, 
including  those  who  expect  to  take  higher  education. 

In  the  smaller  communities  the  difficulties  are  con- 
siderably greater.  If  a  great  many  courses  are  offered, 
either  many  teachers  will  be  needed  or  one  teacher  must 
teach  many  subjects.  The  local  community  may  more 
easily  provide  for  the  vocational  than  for  the  general 
education,  because  that  can  usually  be  connected  with 
the  local  industries,  and  by  proper  cooperation  between 
the  schools  and  the  directors  of  these  industries,  and 
the  utilization  of  the  technical  training  and  natural 
ability  of  some  of  the  leading  workers  as  assistants  to 
the  regular  teachers,  the  necessary  training  can  be  given 
to  all  who  expect  to  work  in  those  industries.  If  pupils 
wish  to  engage  in  an  industry  not  carried  on  in  the 
community  it  is  better  that  they  should  go  to  some 
center  for  that  industry  for  their  training. 

All  who  are  taking  secondary  education  should  have 
some  general  and  cultural  training,  while  those  who  are 
to  receive  a  higher  education  will  spend  most  of  their 
time  on  general  culture  subjects.  All  should  be  givei> 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  —  INTERMEDIATE     167 

some  work  of  that  kind  which  will  give  them  perma- 
nent interests,  helping  them  to  know  how  to  spend  their 
leisure  moments,  rendering  them  more  appreciative  of 
culture  of  all  kinds  and  more  helpfid  to  the  community 
life  in  various  ways. 

Those  who  are  to  have  a  higher  education  not  only 
need  this,  but,  according  to  the  present  demands  of 
colleges  and  schools  of  technology,  they  must  have  spe- 
cial preparation  for  the  studies  that  they  are  to  take 
up  later.  Since  those  who  receive  a  higher  education 
are  likely  to  be  useful  to  a  larger  group  of  people  than 
that  of  their  own  community,  there  is  good  ground  for 
saying  that  such  education  should  be  provided  and  con- 
trolled as  much  or  more  by  the  state  than  by  the  local 
community.  There  is  considerable  reason,  therefore,  for 
the  establishment  of  central  high  schools  preparing  for 
college  entrance,  to  which  pupils  from  the  smaller  com- 
munities may  go.  In  the  larger  school  thus  formed,  the 
variety  of  courses  demanded  may  be  given  without  ex- 
cessive expense.  In  the  case  of  large  cities  it  may  be 
more  economical  for  the  local  high  schools  not  only  to 
give  a  high-school  education,  but  also  that  of  the  first 
year  or  two  of  college. 

Since  those  who  have  a  secondary  education,  whether 
they  receive  a  higher  education  or  not,  are  likely  to 
form  an  influential  portion  of  the  community,  it  is  im- 
portant not  only  that  they  have  the  vocational  training 
enabling  them  to  make  a  living,  but  that  they  shall 
have  such  training  as  will  enable  them  also  to  take  part 
in  aU  the  higher  forms  of  cooperation  and  regulation  of 
conduct  for  economic,  protective,  recreative,  social,  cul- 
tural, moral,  and  educational  ends. 

In  order  that  this  may  be  the  case,  the  training  must 


168  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

be  idealistic  as  well  as  practical.  They  must  not  only 
understand  the  life  of  to-day  and  be  prepared  to  con- 
tribute to  that  of  the  future,  but  they  must  also  have 
their  ideals  and  their  conduct  formed  and  regulated  by 
the  best  of  the  past.  Under  present  conditions,  scien- 
tific studies  are  becoming  increasingly  more  useful  in 
the  industries  and  in  social  life,  but  science  is  in  its 
very  nature  more  or  less  destructive  of  authority  and 
tradition.  Hence  there  is  a  need  for  another  kind  of 
training  than  that  given  by  science  only.  The  languages 
are  all  based  on  custom  and  for  the  rules  given  in  them 
there  is  no  other  ultimate  reason  than  usage.  The  study 
of  language  has  therefore  considerable  influence  in  de- 
veloping respect  for  authority  and  the  habit  of  con- 
formity to  usage.  This  is  perhaps  the  chief  distinctive 
function  of  linguistic  education. 

History  and  literature,  dealing  as  they  do  with  human 
acts,  interests,  and  ideals,  have  a  distinct  place  in  cul- 
tural training.  They  broaden  the  view  and  stimulate  to 
the  formation  of  ideals  of  beauty  and  of  conduct.  The 
study  of  the  various  arts  has  a  similar  influence.  In 
connection  with  all  of  these  subjects  there  is  more  or 
less  incidental  training  favorable  to  the  regulation  of 
conduct  morally.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  civics  are  taken  up  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  history  and  of  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Incidental  training  in  morals  is  not,  however,  suffi- 
cient. The  youth  needs  more  direct  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  moral  conduct.  This  is  especially  true  now 
that  he  does  not  so  readUy  accept  the  teaching  of  author- 
ity and  the  traditions  of  his  elders.  There  is  more  and 
more  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  young  people  to  ques- 


EDUCATIONAL   NEEDS  —  INTERMEDIATE     169 

tion  regarding  moral  regulations,  and  they  need  to  be 
shown  just  why  certain  forms  of  conduct  have  bad 
effects  upon  the  individual  and  upon  the  social  group 
to  which  he  belongs.  This  special  study  of  the  princi- 
ples of  ethics  should  not  be  a  purely  theoretical  and 
scholastic  subject,  but  one  dealing  with  practical  prob- 
lems of  personal,  family,  community,,  and  national  life. 

Closely  associated  with  such  study  there  should  be 
something  in  the  way  of  social  training.  The  ideals  and 
practices  of  social  conduct  are  in  process  of  forming, 
and  at  no  other  time  are  individuals  so  ready  to  conform 
to  the  customs  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong.  High 
schools  shoidd,  therefore,  give  a  good  deal  of  attention 
to  the  social  affairs  of  their  pupils.  This  attention 
should  not  be  chiefly  of  the  negative  kind,  in  which  cer- 
tain kinds  of  action  are  prohibited,  but  positive,  with 
older  people  of  the  school  and  of  the  community  taking 
part,  helping  to  make  the  occasions  pleasant  and  sug- 
gesting the  forms  of  conduct  that  shoidd  be  followed 
by  young  men  and  women. 

To  give  the  training  needed  for  the  present  day  much 
more  time  needs  to  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  human 
activities  and  the  materials  used  in  such  studies  must 
be  greatly  changed.  History  must  be  entirely  trans- 
formed from  what  it  has  been,  largely  a  study  of  wars 
and  warriors,  into  a  study  of  the  history  of  civilization 
and  of  the  principles  of  sociology  and  of  civics.  The 
new  types  of  leaders  in  science,  industry,  commerce, 
and  social  service  must  take  the  place  of  warriors  as 
the  heroes  of  modern  life  and  of  a  civilization  of  peace 
and  progress.  Recent  and  present  activities  of  men 
and  women  active  in  the  world's  work  must  receive 
more  attention  and  more  time  must  be  spent  in  study- 


170  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ing  local  affairs.  Since  intelligent  cooperative  action  is 
becoming  an  increasingly  important  factor  in  every 
phase  of  human  activity,  the  principles  and  institutions 
concerned  in  successful  cooperation  must  be  studied  by 
secondary  pupils  and  the  results  of  the  study  applied 
to  community  life  and  to  public  questions  of  to-day. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Should  a  pupil  who  has  begun  to  specialize  in  one  line, 
such  as  manual  arts,  be  required  to  continue  that  work 
in  the  high  school  or  may  he  be  permitted  to  change 
to  literary,  classical,  scientific,  or  commercial  courses  ? 
Why  ?  May  pupils  from  these  various  courses  be  taught 
in  the  same  classes  effectively  ?  How  ? 

2.  Make  a  study  of  the  men  of  your  community  and  see 
how  many  of  the  successful  ones  have  always  followed 
the  same  vocation  and  how  many  have  changed  one  or 
more  times. 

3.  Is  it  desirable  that  all  men  should  be  trained  for  a  spe- 
cial vocation,  then  follow  it  permanently,  or  that  they 
should  have  experience  in  several  ? 

4.  It  is  becoming  harder  for  persons  to  secure  employment 
without  special  training  for  the  work.  Should  the  schools 
increase  the  difficulty  by  discouraging  change  from  one 
course  to  another  ?  or  should  they  decrease  it  by  facil- 
itating such  changes  ? 

5.  Summarize  the  arguments  for  and  against  separate  sec- 
ondary schools  for  general  and  for  vocational  training. 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  of  part-time  schools,  and 
might  they  have  a  value  for  general  as  well  as  voca- 
tional education  and  for  children  under  fourteen? 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  making  high-school  pupils 
familiar  with  the  hfe  and  literature  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome  ?  Of  making  them  familiar  with  the  older 
English  literature  ?  Of  making  them  familiar  with  the 
literature  and  the  community  life  of  to-day  ?  Should 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — INTERMEDIATE      171 

pupils  have  only  one  of  these  subjects  or  a  little  of  all, 
with  special  emphasis  on  one  ? 

8.  Summarize  and  compare  the  advantages  of  science  and 
language  studies. 

9.  Should  some  or  all  high-school  pupils  have  some  teach- 
ing in  sociological  and  ethical  as  well  as  civic  studies  ? 
Why? 

10.  Look  up  various  histories  to  find  the  one  that  devotes 
least  space  to  war  and  suggest  further  possible  improve- 
ments in  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  AND  ACTIVITIES  —  HIGHER 

Development  and  dominance  of  higher  education. 
In  all  civilized  countries  higher  education  was  provided 
for  the  few  several  centuries  before  there  was  much  pro- 
vision made  for  elementary  and  secondary  education  for 
the  many.  The  abler  individuals  demanded  opportuni- 
ties for  education  and  were  able  to  get  their  demands 
granted.  In  the  autocratic  society  of  past  centuries 
leaders  needed  an  education,  while  for  the  great  mass 
of  people  it  was  not  thought  necessary  and  many  rulers 
considered  it  undesirable. 

So  long  as  these  leaders  formed  a  distinct  class  with 
honors  and  privileges  rather  than  duties  and  obliga- 
tions, the  results  of  education  were  limited,  but  with 
the  growth  of  democracy  those  having  higher  education 
have  become  in  a  broader  sense  leaders  of  the  people 
and  disseminators  of  culture.  Educational  improvement 
has  been  largely  from  the  top  downward  to  the  second- 
ary and  elementary  schools.  There  is  always,  however, 
a  tendency  for  educational  processes  to  lag  behind  in- 
dustrial and  social  progress ;  hence,  by  the  time  an 
improvement  in  higher  education  has  modified  second- 
ary and  elementary  education  it  is  likely  to  be  a  good 
way  behind,  besides  being  not  well  suited  to  all  the 
classes  for  which  it  is  provided.  Until  recently  higher 
education  was  designed  for  the  professional  classes  only, 
but  now  it  is  taken  by  many  who  engage  in  the  indus- 
tries and  in  commerce. 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  173 

The  modem  higher  education  can  only  be  under- 
stood by  going  back  to  its  modern  beginning  about  four 
hundred  years  ago.  Immediately  following  the  Renais- 
sance there  was  a  very  marked  development  of  skilled 
workmen  in  a  great  many  different  lines.  These  work- 
men formed  guilds  and  took  measures  to  partially  stand- 
ardize the  skill  of  workers  in  gold,  silver,  and  other 
lines.  Every  one  was  required  to  work  as  an  apprentice 
under  the  direction  of  a  skilled  worker  imtil  he  attained 
sufficient  knowledge  to  be  able  to  carry  on  the  work 
without  direction,  when  he  attained  the  rank  of  jour- 
neyman. If  he  gained  such  knowledge  and  skill  as  to 
be  able  to  plan  work  to  be  done  by  journeymen,  he  was 
known  as  a  master  workman. 

So  prominent  was  this  guild  system,  and  so  distinct 
was  the  field  of  learning  from  that  of  the  industries, 
that  when  institutions  of  higher  learning  were  formed 
a  guild  of  scholars  was  established.  The  bachelor's 
degree  marked  the  ending  of  the  apprentice  stage  in 
scholarship ;  the  master's  degree  signalized  the  attain- 
ment of  joumeymanship ;  while  the  doctor's  degree  was 
given  to  those  who  were  able  to  do  original  work  and 
direct  or  teach  others. 

The  guild  of  scholars  is  the  only  one  that  has  sur- 
vived in  approximately  its  original  form  down  to  the 
present  time,  and  the  degrees  given  by  colleges  and 
universities  are  supposed  to  have  much  of  the  same 
significance  that  they  formerly  had.  This  is  true  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  higher  education  has  been  greatly 
extended  and  modified  in  many  ways.  Universities  still 
prepare  for  the  professions  of  law,  medicine,  and  theol- 
ogy, and  to  an  increasing  extent  for  teaching. 

The  greatest  change  has  come  through  the  wonder- 


174  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

ful  development  of  science  in  the  last  few  centuries, 
which  has  broadened  the  field  of  knowledge  immensely 
and  has  made  science  an  important  part  of  the  training 
for  all  the  professions  and  industries.  Our  higher  in- 
stitutions now  offer  so  many  different  courses  of  study 
that  if  a  single  individual  took  all  of  them  he  would 
need  several  centuries  in  which  to  complete  his  educa- 
tion. This  fact  and  the  further  fact  that  higher  educa- 
tion is  now  needed  by  leaders  in  all  the  industries,  in- 
cluding that  of  commerce,  make  it  utterly  impossible 
that  our  higher  educational  institutions  shall  be  chiefly 
workshops  for  a  guild  of  scholars.  This  does  not  mean 
that  such  a  guild  no  longer  has  a  place  of  usefulness 
in  civilized  society.  There  is  a  distinct  place  in  every 
nation  for  leaders  who  are  interested  in  non-utilitarian 
affairs.  We  must  look  to  the  idealist  for  the  stimulus 
to  new  achievements  and  to  a  higher  spiritual  as  well 
as  a  material  civilization.  A  guild  of  scholars  may  help 
to  develop  such  leaders. 

It  may  be  that  the  giving  of  degrees  after  the  com- 
pletion of  a  certain  amount  and  kind  of  scholastic  work 
is  the  best  means  of  preserving  such  a  guild  and  of 
promoting  the  development  of  idealistic  leaders;  but, 
however  that  may  be,  there  can  be  no  justification 
for  claiming  that  all  lines  of  higher  education  should 
be  directed  in  accordance  with  the  same  scholastic  sys- 
tem. It  is  time  for  those  engaged  in  higher  education 
to  consider  the  situation  as  it  exists  to-day  and  to  strive 
to  supply  a  higher  education  of  the  kind  needed  by 
those  seeking  it  in  order  that  they  may  be  efficient 
leaders  in  the  lines  of  work  in  which  they  engage. 

Scholastic  standards  versus  usefulness.  AH  who 
are  taking  a  higher  education  need  a  more  advanced 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  175 

general  education  than  that  of  the  secondary  schools 
and  also  special  training  for  particular  vocations.  In 
this  country  the  general  education  should  be  given  in 
the  first  two  or  three  years  of  college  work,  which  in 
reality  corresponds  to  a  portion  of  the  secondary  edu- 
cation of  other  countries.  The  last  year  or  two  of  col- 
lege and  the  graduate  courses  in  the  universities  should 
be  recognized  as  the  period  when  general  education 
should  largely  cease  and  the  training  become  almost 
wholly  vocational. 

It  is  desirable  in  this  country  that  the  final  choice 
of  occupation  for  those  who  take  a  higher  education 
should  be  left  open  through  most  of  the  college  course, 
or  at  least  that  it  should  not  be  difficult  for  one  to  make 
a  new  choice. 

The  number  of  subjects  offered  in  higher  institutions 
of  learning  is  now  very  great,  and  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  option  allowed  the  individual  student  as  to  which  he 
shall  take  and  in  what  order,  but  the  scholastic  ideal 
still  plays  a  large  part  in  coUege-entrance  and  gradua- 
tion requirements.  More  effort  is  expended  in  deter- 
mining who  shall  be  admitted  to  college,  and  who  shall 
graduate,  and  in  giving  artificial  value  to  degrees,  than 
in  trying  to  give  what  will  be  of  most  value  to  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  students  in  the  most  efficient  way. 
Elaborate  means  are  taken  to  exclude  from  the  chances 
of  a  higher  education  those  who  have  not  had  a  certain 
kind  and  amount  of  training  in  the  secondary  schools, 
and  in  testing  and  preventing  those  who  do  enter  from 
graduation  until  they  have  done  a  certain  amount  of 
work.  In  accordance  with  the  scholastic  ideal  such 
studies  as  Latin  and  mathematics  have  been  assumed 
as  necessary  to  aU  who  are  to  receive  a  higher  educa- 


176  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

tion.  This  may  be  true  for  those  who  are  to  join  the 
guild  of  scholars,  although  even  of  that  one  may  have 
doubts,  but  that  it  is  true  for  all  those  individuals  who 
are  preparing  to  enter  the  professions  and  the  indus- 
tries, there  is  no  evidence. 

University  extension  classes  and  summer  schools 
have  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  a  great  many  persons 
who  cannot  meet  college-entrance  requirements  are  able 
to  profit  by  the  subjects  offered  in  higher  institutions 
of  learning.  In  most  higher  institutions  such  persons 
are  either  not  permitted  to  enter  even  as  special  stu- 
dents, to  get  what  they  can  from  the  courses  offered 
without  asking  for  a  degree,  or  if  they  are  permitted  to 
enter,  are  made  to  feel  that  they  can  never  be  the  equals 
of  those  who  take  a  regular  course. 

It  may  be  admitted  that  the  guild  of  scholars  has  a 
right  to  protect  itself  by  the  maintenance  of  standards 
of  scholarship,  but  there  is  no  justification  whatever  for 
the  domination  of  this  guild  of  scholars  over  all  the 
higher  education,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  also  over 
the  secondary  education,  of  a  large  number  of  persons 
who  do  not  wish  to  enter  the  guild,  but  who  do  wish  a 
higher  education,  and  who  would  profit  by  it  and  be- 
come thereby  more  efficient  members  of  society.  This 
is  especially  true  of  state  universities  supported  at  pub- 
Kc  expense.  Any  one  who  can  profit  by  the  work  of- 
fered in  such  institutions  should  be  permitted  to  take 
it.  They,  at  least,  should  certainly  not  be  run  as  "closed 
shops." 

It  may  be  necessary  that  those  seeking  degrees  from 
the  scholastic  guild  should  be  graded  in  their  work, 
but  this  is  no  reason  why  students  who  are  taking  work 
because  of  its  value  or  interest  to  them  should  be  graded, 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  177 

or  why  their  teachers  should  spend  a  large  part  of  their 
time  in  examining  and  grading  them  instead  of  teach- 
ing them.  If  the  custom  of  giving  degrees  except  to 
classical  students  were  dropped,  there  would  be  little 
or  no  occasion  for  marking  other  students.  Each  teacher 
should  have  the  privilege  of  excluding  any  student  from 
his  class  whose  work  is  so  inefficient  that  he  is  gaining 
little  from  the  course  and  who  is  interfering  with  the 
work  of  others.  He  should  also  know  his  students  well 
enough  to  advise  them  as  to  future  work. 

A  certificate  might  be  given  each  student  stating 
what  work  he  had  taken.  Under  this  arrangement  there 
would  be  no  artificial  standards  of  scholarship  to  main- 
tain. Each  pupil  would  take  that  which  was  most  inter- 
esting to  him  or  which  he  thought  would  be  most  use- 
ful, while  each  teacher  would  try  to  make  his  courses 
as  valuable  as  possible.  A  certificate  stating  what 
courses  had  been  taken  in  a  given  institution  would 
then  perhaps  become  more  significant  than  are  the  de- 
grees now  given  by  that  institution. 

The  very  fact  that  examinations  are  given  and  every 
student  is  graded  on  his  work  tends  also  to  modify  the 
teaching  in  order  that  it  may  be  easier  to  mark  the  at- 
tainments of  students.  The  English  university  man  who 
objected  to  the  introduction  of  English  literature  into 
the  course,  because  it  is  impossible  to  grade  accurately 
the  work  in  that  subject,  was  entirely  logical  if  the 
scholastic  ideal  of  maintaining  definite  standards  is  to 
be  carried  out.  A  course  in  English  literature,  domi- 
nated by  the  ideal  of  accurately  measuring  what  the 
students  obtain  from  the  course,  can  scarcely  be  of 
very  great  cultural  value.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
many  other  subjects. 


178  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

The  two  ideals  of  culture  and  of  scholastic  tests  and 
standards  are  opposed  to  each  other.  There  is  good 
ground  for  saying  that  if  the  same  effort  were  made  to 
develop  permanent  cultural  interests  in  persons  taking 
secondary  and  higher  education  that  there  is  in  main- 
taining scholastic  standards  by  means  of  the  marking 
system,  the  results  would  be  a  larger  proportion  of 
leaders  with  non-utilitarian  interests  and  ideals.  This 
would  certainly  be  true  of  those  who  do  not  take  the 
scholastic  courses,  and  would  probably  be  true  of  those 
who  do,  because  in  their  case  the  marking  system  di- 
rects the  attention  to  the  mechanics  of  language 
instead  of  toward  the  finer  beauties  of  thought  and 
expression. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  various  types  of  lead- 
ers in  the  world's  work  to-day  has  changed  so  much 
that  higher  education  should  no  longer  be  dominated 
by  ideals  and  practices  originating  at  a  time  when  scho- 
lastic leaders  were  the  most  prominent  members  of 
society.  It  maybe  claimed  that  the  scholastic  guild,  by 
maintaining  degree  and  college-entrance  requirements, 
is  doing  a  service  to  the  nation  by  making  it  necessary 
that  leaders  in  all  the  industries  and  professions  shall 
study  some  non-utilitarian  subjects  and  develop  ideal- 
istic interests  that  will  counteract  the  tendency  of  the 
age  toward  materialism  and  utilitarianism. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  large 
number  who  would  otherwise  take  a  higher  education 
are  prevented  from  so  doing  and  many  others  take  the 
required  subjects  under  protest.  The  wisdom  of  this 
procedure  is  best  tested  by  the  results.  If  the  majority 
of  those  who  take  the  non-utilitarian  subjects  under 
compulsion,  and  some  who  take  them  by  choice,  never 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  179 

develop  any  permanent  interest  in  them  under  the  scho- 
lastic system,  that  system  is  not  justified. 

Where  there  is  an  elective  system  the  classical  stud- 
ies should  be  put  on  the  same  plane  with  other  courses 
and  subjects,  with  no  artificial  advantages  other  than 
those  they  gain  by  having  been  for  many  generations 
the  leading  subjects  taught.  No  students  shoidd  be 
compelled  to  take  them  in  order  to  get  into  college  or 
in  order  to  take  any  other  subject  that  he  wishes.  The 
teachers  of  those  subjects  should  be  placed  on  the  same 
plane  as  teachers  of  the  other  subjects,  having  the  oppor- 
tunity to  demonstrate  that  they  are  interesting  and  val- 
uable without  any  direct  or  indirect  coercion  in  their 
favor.  Special  privileges  should  not  be  given  to  sub- 
jects any  more  than  to  persons.  The  only  thing  re- 
quired of  any  one  taking  a  higher  cultural  education 
should  be  that  he  has  studied  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  industry  and  efficiency  and  that  he  can  probably 
profit  from  the  further  education  which  he  desires. 

In  the  case  of  vocational  education  more  definite  re- 
quirements may  be  made,  as  experience  has  shown  that 
certain  subjects  of  study  are  necessary  to  certain  voca- 
tions and  certain  preparation  is  necessary  in  order  to 
take  those  studies  profitably. 

Tests  of  the  results  of  general  and  vocational  edu- 
cation. In  both  cultural  and  vocational  education  it  is 
desirable  to  have  some  means  of  measuring  results.  In 
vocational  education  the  rdtimate  test  is  the  success  of 
the  students  who  have  taken  certain  courses  of  study 
supposed  to  prepare  them  for  their  work.  Other  stand- 
ard tests  of  what  they  know  of  certain  subjects  and 
especially  of  what  they  can  do  in  certain  lines  may  be 
devised,  which  will  help  the  student  to  know  how  well 


180  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

he  is  prepared  for  the  work  m  which  he  is  to  engage, 
and  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher  in  giving  further  train- 
ing and  in  advising  as  to  further  study. 

In  general  education  standard  tests  may  be  devel- 
oped in  some  subjects,  but  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
best  results  of  higher  cultural  education  are  indicated 
by  interest  aroused  rather  than  the  passing  of  tests. 
The  best  measure  of  interest  is  the  amount  of  effort 
put  forth  in  pursuing  the  subject.  This  is  indicated 
partly  by  the  amount  of  reading  and  studying  done 
and  by  the  amount  of  productive  work  in  the  way  of 
scientific  research,  and  literary,  musical,  or  dramatic 
compositions. 

The  quantity  of  work  of  this  kind  can  be  measured, 
but  the  only  measure  of  quality  is  the  appreciation  of 
those  to  whom  the  production  is  submitted,  not  only 
the  teacher  in  charge,  but  fellow  students  and  some- 
times the  general  public.  One  of  the  best  tests  of  what 
one  has  obtained  from  a  general  culture  subject  is 
found  in  trying  to  pass  on  to  some  one  else  its  benefits. 
Students  in  the  higher  institutions  should,  therefore, 
be  given  as  many  opportunities  as  possible  for  doing 
university  extension  work  and  for  contributing  to  the 
cultural  activities  of  the  community. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  cause  of  general  and  cul- 
tural education  in  higher  institutions  is  ever  favored 
by  compulsory  requirements.  If  a  subject  is  generally 
useful  or  is  calculated  to  arouse  a  permanent  cultural 
interest,  skillful  teachers  should  be  employed  who  will 
demonstrate  that  fact  to  the  student  body  and  to  the 
general  public.  Although  it  may  be  admitted  that 
English,  the  most  commonly  required  subject  in  sec- 
ondary and  higher  education,  is  valuable  in  an  increas- 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  181 

ing  degree  to  leaders  in  all  lines  of  life  to-day,  still  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  better  results  would  not 
follow  if  teachers  of  English  had  to  demonstrate  this 
fact  instead  of  merely  having  to  give  the  required 
course  to  those  who  must  take  it. 

A  knowledge  of  sociological  problems  and  of  the 
fundamentals  of  all  the  sciences  is  overwhelmingly  im- 
portant to-day  as  compared  with  its  value  in  former 
times.  The  productive  value  of  such  information  may 
be  quite  limited  for  most  individuals,  but  all,  especially 
the  leaders,  need  a  broad,  appreciative  knowledge,  in 
the  light  of  which  they  will  be  able  to  understand  all 
movements  for  increasing  industrial  efficiency,  improv- 
ing public  health,  promoting  mental  and  social  hygiene, 
developing  efficient  civic  life,  and  increasing  educa- 
tional facilities.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  these 
subjects,  not  by  requiring  students  to  take  them  and 
putting  them  in  charge  of  poorly  prepared  teachers, 
but  by  offering  every  encouragement  possible  to  teach- 
ers who  will  demonstrate  their  interest  and  value. 

In  general  we  may  say  that  every  desirable  form  of 
education  may  best  be  provided,  not  by  force,  but  by 
furnishing  the  best  possible  facilities  for  that  kind  of 
education  and  giving  it  a  fair  chance  to  demonstrate 
its  value  to  students  and  to  society  in  general. 

Higher  vocational  education.  The  number  of  per- 
sons of  all  classes  now  attending  college  is  so  great  and 
the  education  given  so  general  in  character  that  much 
of  it  may  be  classed  with  secondary  education.  The 
amoimt  of  post-graduate  work  has  greatly  increased, 
and  it  is  now  taken  not  only  by  those  preparing  for  the 
professions,  but  by  many  specialists  in  engineering  and 
other  lines.    In  some  instances  the  time  required  for 


182  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

college  and  graduate  work  is  being  shortened  by  spe- 
cialization, during  the  last  year  or  two  of  coUegiate 
work,  in  the  direction  of  a  vocation.  In  most  vocational 
schools  of  the  higher  type  the  course  has  been  length- 
ened for  those  who  are  not  college  graduates.  This  is 
made  necessary  because  those  engaged  in  the  higher 
vocations  to-day  need  more  general  education  and  more 
technical  training  than  ever  before.  Besides  this  length- 
ened course  for  the  higher  vocations  there  is  often 
required  a  period  of  practice  in  a  hospital,  a  law  office, 
an  industrial  or  other  establishment,  according  to  the 
course  taken,  before  the  individual  is  considered  fully 
prepared  for  his  work. 

Since  graduate  students  are  expected  to  become  in- 
dependent workers  and  directors  of  the  work  of  others, 
it  is  desirable  not  only  that  they  shall  be  broadly 
instructed  and  well  trained,  but  that  they  shall  possess 
initiative  and  be  able  to  strike  out  in  new  lines.  There 
is  good  reason,  therefore,  for  having  graduate  students 
brought  into  close  touch  with  original  research  and 
that  they  themselves  shall  make  some  original  investi- 
gations. 

It  is  well  also  that  many  of  them  should  make  re- 
search work  their  vocation.  Nothing  can  be  of  greater 
advantage  to  a  nation  than  research  and  invention.  The 
scientific  discoverer  and  inventor  of  to-day  is  more 
powerful  and  useful  to  his  country  than  was  the  warrior- 
priest  leader  of  more  primitive  times,  and  his  work  is, 
almost  without  exception,  of  permanent  advantage  to 
his  people  and  to  the  whole  world.  Warrior  and  politi- 
cal leaders  may  work  for  themselves  rather  than  for  the 
people  and  leave  behind  them  customs  and  laws  that 
are  on  the  whole  a  disadvantage.    Great  artists,  writers, 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  — HIGHER  183 

and  philosophers  may  be  of  much  value  to  a  nation, 
but  such  men  are  less  the  product  of  education  than 
are  scientific  investigators,  and  their  methods  are  less 
useful  to  others.  Education  may,  however,  do  much  to 
insure  that  the  work  of  great  captains  of  industry  and 
finance  and  of  great  political  leaders  and  statesmen 
may  be  successful,  and  that  it  may  promote  public 
welfare  instead  of  furthering  selfish  ends. 

As  was  shown  in  an  earlier  chapter,  leaders  are  the 
important  factor  in  all  social  progress ;  hence  one  of  the 
most  important  functions  of  the  school  is  to  discover 
and  train  those  who  will  be  able  to  direct  their  follow- 
ers in  right  lines  and  induce  them  to  cooperate  effect- 
ually. The  colleges  and  imiversities  are  supposed  to  be 
especially  responsible  for  the  development  of  leaders, 
but  to  be  successful  they  must  have  the  cooperation  of 
the  lower  schools.  If  the  lower  schools  have  required 
simply  obedient  following  of  directions  and  have  dis- 
couraged independence  and  originality,  some  with  the 
qualities  of  leaders  will  have  dropped  out  and  others 
will  come  to  the  universities  with  no  training  in  ini- 
tiative. This  consideration  justifies  educators  not  only 
in  emphasizing  original  research  in  the  universities,  but 
in  encouraging  initiative  and  originality  in  the  lower 
schools.  This  can  best  be  done  by  sending  teachers 
into  colleges,  normal  schools,  and  high  schools,  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  investigation  and  able  to  teach  their 
pupils  according  to  the  methods  used  in  scientific  re- 
search. 

In  artistic,  literary,  and  industrial  lines  something 
may  be  done  toward  developing  leaders  with  initiative 
by  having  pupils  confronted  with  real  problems  which 
they  are  responsible  for  solving,  instead  of  requiring 


184  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

them  to  practice  according  to  directions  given  them. 
Many  of  the  qualities  of  leadership  are  inherited  rather 
than  acquired,  but  education  may  do  much  to  develop 
leaders  by  training  and  by  encouraging  instead  of  sup- 
pressing independent  and  original  effort. 

EXERCISES 

1.  To  what  extent  is  the  influence  of  higher  education  in 
lower  schools  of  advantage  to  them  ?  Will  the  making 
of  a  course  of  study  for  an  elementary  or  a  high  school, 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  community  in  which  it  is  lo- 
cated, without  reference  to  the  requirements  of  college, 
improve  the  school  in  all  respects,  or  will  it  result  in 
decreased  interest  in  education,  decreased  stimulus  to 
effort,  and  the  pursuit  of  less  valuable  studies  ?  Why  ? 

2.  Would  it  be  a  good  thing  if  some  colleges  adhered 
closely  to  the  classic  education,  while  others  ignored  it 
entirely,  instead  of  giving  the  classics  artificial  ad- 
vantages and  prominence,  but  all  the  time  making  con- 
cessions to  modern  demands  as  most  of  them  do  ?  What 
would  be  the  effect  of  giving  degrees  for  high-grade 
work  in  the  classics,  and  giving  no  degrees,  but  allow- 
ing perfect  freedom  in  all  other  lines  ? 

3.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  guilds  and  of  the  universities 
and  trace  their  influence  in  modern  education. 

4.  Collect  estimates  of  the  percentage  of  time  spent  by  the 
administrative,  clerical  and  teaching  force  of  colleges  in 
labor  that  grows  out  of  the  system  of  marks  and  de- 
grees. What  is  gained  by  such  labor  ?  Is  the  teaching 
better  because  the  teachers  mark  pupils  on  their  work 
or  is  it  not  so  good  ?  Do  the  pupils  work  harder  and  by 
better  methods?  Does  the  system  develop  in  students 
interest,  responsibility,  and  initiative  to  a  greater  extent 
than  would  be  the  case  if  the  whole  time  of  the  teacher 
were  devoted  to  making  the  work  interesting  and  use- 
ful to  the  student  ? 


EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS -HIGHER  185 

6.  Could  the  freedom  that  is  allowed  in  taking  summer- 
school  courses  be  extended  to  the  regular  college  work, 
or  is  more  gained  by  encouragfing  all  summer-school 
pupils  to  work  for  credits  and  degrees  as  in  the  regular 
work  of  the  college  ? 

6.  In  what  subjects  can  the  valuable  results  of  teaching  be 
most  accurately  tested  and  in  what  subjects  are  accurate 
tests  least  possible  ? 

7.  Should  all  studies  in  college  be  given  an  equal  chance 
and  the  fittest,  as  determined  by  the  number  that  take 
them,  be  allowed  to  survive  ?  Why  ?  How  could  this  be 
done?  Might  some  subjects  disappear  in  some  schools 
and  become  very  prominent  in  others  ?  Would  this  be 
objectionable  or  would  it  be  a  good  thing  for  colleges  to 
specialize  in  making  certain  lines  of  education  very 
strong  ?  If  teachers  were  expected  to  make  their  sub- 
jects attractive  to  students,  would  there  be  danger  that 
education  would  become  superficial,  or  if  neither  easy 
nor  hard  courses  led  to  a  degree,  would  students  choose 
substantial  rather  than  superficial  ones  ?  Whatever  the 
majority  did,  would  not  all  get  what  they  desired, 
whether  it  were  temporary  pleasure  or  permanent 
value  ? 

8.  Make  up  a  list  of  prominent  discoverers,  inventors, 
artists,  writers,  political  and  commercial  leaders  of  ad- 
mitted originality,  and  see  how  many  of  them  had 
special  school  training  in  the  line  of  their  success  and 
how  many  had  no  such  training. 

9.  Give  suggestions  as  to  how  leadership  maybe  promoted 
by  the  schools. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  AND  AS  AN 
INSTITUTION 

The  smallest  unspecialized  social  group.  The  family 
group  has  aU  the  needs  and  engages  in  all  the  activities 
of  larger  groups  such  as  the  community  and  the  nation. 
It  constitutes  an  economic  and  protective  unit,  provides 
variety  of  social  intercourse,  gives  opportunity  for  play, 
has  its  own  cultural  material,  its  own  code  of  morals 
and  its  religious  beliefs  and  exercises,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  educational  institutions.  Every 
phase  of  social  behavior  is  more  completely  represented 
in  this  small  group  than  in  any  larger  group  or  in  the 
various  groups  formed  for  special  purposes. 

The  above  statements  hold,  with  slight  exceptions, 
for  family  life  in  all  ages  and  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Such  coiild  not  be  the  case  if  the  family  were  a  purely 
artificial  creation.  The  family  is  primarily  a  biological 
and  psychological  group  that  has  grown  into  a  social 
institution.  Families  as  biological  units  are  common  in 
the  animal  world,  but  are  generally  much  less  perma- 
nent than  in  the  human  species.  This  is  due  primarily 
to  the  comparatively  long  and  helpless  infancy  of  the 
young  of  man.  The  instinct  to  care  for  the  young  is 
correspondingly  strong  and  permanent  in  human  par- 
ents, especially  in  the  mother.  Social  and  imitative  in- 
stincts tend  to  prolong  family  unity  beyond  the  time 
made  necessary  by  biological  conditions.  The  instincts 
of  ownership  and  of  jealousy  help  to  keep  the  husband 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  187 

and  wife  together,  and  the  father  is  more  surely  kept 
with  the  group  if  his  protection  is  needed  and  if  his 
pleasures  are  increased  by  the  mother  and  children. 
The  social  instincts  of  companionship,  and  of  leader- 
ship and  sympathy,  and  the  tendency  to  submit  to  a 
leader,  all  have  free  play  in  the  family  group  and  help 
to  prolong  its  existence. 

The  family  as  an  institution.  The  above  biological 
and  psychological  considerations  show  why  family  groups 
exist  and  remain  more  or  less  permanent.  Among  all 
peoples,  with  few  and  partial  exceptions,  the  family  has 
also  been  made  into  a  social  institution.  The  fact  that 
family  groups  naturally  exist  has  led  to  social  regula- 
tions defining,  preserving,  and  controlling  the  family. 
These  regulations  were  primarily  the  outgrowth  of  more 
or  less  unconsciously  formed  customs.  No  doubt  indi- 
viduals of  strong  personality,  who  took  active  measures 
to  preserve  their  own  family  groups,  were  influential 
in  producing  more  conscious  regulation  of  family  life. 
This  led  to  the  common  recognition  that  each  man  was 
entitled  to  special  rights,  privileges,  and  authority  in  his 
family  that  he  did  not  have  in  other  families  and  that 
other  men  did  not  have  in  his  family.  Each  man  was 
also  held  responsible  for  the  actions  of  other  members 
of  his  family  and  for  the  care  of  them.  Such  develop- 
ment as  this  made  the  biological  group  into  the  social 
institution,  with  which  was  associated  commonly  recog- 
nized customs  and  rules. 

Marriage  customs.  The  change  to  more  conscious 
and  intentional  regulation  of  the  family  as  an  institu- 
tion came  in  connection  with  the  formation  of  new 
families,  or,  in  other  words,  with  marriage  and  its 
recognition  as  an  institution.  Among  even  the  lowest 


188  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

savages  the  mating  instinct  is  not  given  free  play,  but 
there  are  more  or  less  clearly  recognized  and  strictly 
enforced  regulations  regarding  the  matings  of  young 
people. 

They  must  or  may  not  mate  with  certain  clans  or 
gens  or  with  relatives  or  members  of  their  own  tribes. 
Among  the  aborigines  of  Australia  and  other  places 
the  regulations  as  to  required  or  permissible  marriage 
were  so  complex  that  it  was  a  long  time  before  they 
were  comprehensible  to  students  of  marriage  customs. 
In  other  tribes  the  regulations  are  few  and  simple,  but 
everywhere  there  is  some  sort  of  a  ceremony  that  is 
recognized  as  marriage  and  some  regulation  of  mar- 
riage by  the  elders  of  the  community.  In  many  places, 
especially  in  the  Orient,  the  young  people  themselves 
do  not  choose  a  mate,  even  within  the  permitted  class, 
but  marriage  is  arranged  entirely  by  the  heads  of  their 
families.  In  some  places  the  property  idea  dominates, 
and  wives  must  be  purchased  of  the  father  or  the  bride 
must  bring  a  dowry  to  her  husband.  In  other  cases 
property  has  less  to  do  with  marriage  arrangements 
than  family,  position,  tradition,  and  relationship.  In 
all  such  cases  the  desires  of  the  young  people  are  con- 
sidered of  secondary  importance  or  perhaps  of  no  sig- 
nificance whatever. 

Religion  often  has  much  to  do  with  marriage.  This 
is  especially  true  when  the  religion  consists  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  of  some  form  of  ancestor  worship.  The 
idea  of  gods  as  associated  with  certain  localities  also 
has  a  similar  influence  upon  marriage.  In  many  in- 
stances, as  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
and  the  Chinese,  the  father  was  the  priest  of  the  family 
and  made  offerings  to  the  god  of  his  ancestors  and  of 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  189 

the  region  in  which  he  lived.  Each  man  must  have  a 
son  to  perform  the  proper  religious  ceremonies  after 
his  death.  When  a  new  family  was  formed  by  mar- 
riage, one  party  must  adopt  the  religion  of  the 
family  to  which  the  other  belonged.  This  led  to 
marriage  ceremonies  that  were  distinctly  religious  in 
character. 

In  countries  where  there  were  distinct  classes  of  peo- 
ple who  did  not  intermarry  with  each  other,  and  where 
marriage  meant  the  initiation  of  one  of  the  parties, 
usually  the  woman,  into  the  worship  of  the  special  gods 
of  the  family  to  which  the  other  party  belonged,  an  ex- 
traordinary importance  was  attached  to  marriage  and 
to  the  family.  The  family,  with  its  gods,  its  traditions, 
and  its  position  in  the  community,  was  to  be  preserved 
at  any  cost.  The  whole  life  of  the  individual  was  regu- 
lated by  the  family,  and  his  personal  desires  in  marriage 
as  well  as  in  every  other  sphere  of  life  were  of  little 
significance  in  comparison  with  the  supposed  good  or 
honor  of  the  family.  A  Japanese  who  had  no  family 
was  an  outcast.  On  the  other  hand,  a  member  of  a 
noble  family  would  unhesitatingly  give  up  his  life  or 
sacrifice  himself  in  any  way  for  his  family's  good. 

Christianity,  although  recognizing  only  one  God,  has 
sanctioned  marriage  and  marriage  ceremonies,  and  has 
usually  insisted,  as  do  many  religions,  that  a  marriage 
shall  be  permanent. 

Varieties  of  the  family.  The  typical  family  consists 
of  one  man,  one  woman,  and  several  children.  The  two 
sexes  are  nearly  equal  in  numbers,  and  each  individual 
instinctively  seeks  a  mate,  and  thus  the  natural  con- 
dition is  that  of  monogamy.  With  very  few  exceptions 
the  majority  of  families  among  all  peoples  have  been  of 


190  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

this  type,  although  among  a  number  of  them  families 
of  other  types  are  sanctioned  by  social  usage. 

The  union  of  one  man  with  several  wives  constitutes 
a  type  of  family  recognized  in  many  places.  This  form 
is  technically  known  as  "polygyny,"  though  "poly- 
gamy "  is  commonly  used  instead.  (This  is  not  accu- 
rate, since  polygamy  means  merely  much  married,  and 
hence  may  refer  to  either  man  or  woman.)  Many  fami- 
lies of  this  type  cannot,  however,  exist  among  a  people, 
unless  there  is  a  temporary  surplus  of  women  due  to 
their  capture  in  war  or  to  the  deaths  of  many  men 
through  warfare,  without  causing  a  large  number  of 
men  to  be  left  without  mates.  Polygyny  is  most  fre- 
quently due  to  the  influence  of  warrior  leaders.  They 
assume  the  right  to  many  wives  and  give  the  privilege 
to  their  relatives  and  helpers,  or  perhaps  to  any  one 
who  can  provide  for  them.  In  some  instances  the  wives, 
instead  of  having  to  be  provided  with  food,  relieve  the 
husband  of  the  need  of  providing  it  even  for  himself. 
In  that  case  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  that  he  shall  be 
a  strong  or  privileged  person  in  order  that  he  may  main- 
tain his  claim  to  several  wives  against  those  who  have 
none. 

Polyandry,  in  which  one  woman  has  several  husbands, 
is  a  much  rarer  type  of  family.  It  probably  exists  only 
where  there  are  special  conditions  favoring  it,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Thibet,  where  many  of  the  men  are  away 
a  considerable  part  of  the  year,  herding.  Usually  the 
several  husbands  are  brothers  and  whichever  brother  is 
at  home  is  for  the  time  being  the  principal  husband. 

The  above  are  the  three  typical  forms  of  families, 
but  there  are  other  temporary  or  semi-family  groups. 
In  some  places  there  is  a  condition  known  as  group 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  191 

marriage,  promiscuity  or  communism,  or  there  may  be 
temporary  matings  without  permanent  distinction  be- 
tween family  groups.  In  such  cases  food,  no  matter 
how  obtained,  is  often  regarded  as  belonging  equally  to 
all  and  not  especially  to  the  individual  who  provided  it 
or  to  his  wife  and  children.  The  best  form  of  this  type 
of  life  is,  perhaps,  found  among  some  tribes  of  Esqui- 
maux. The  smallest  social  unit  that  can  best  survive  in 
the  regions  in  which  they  live  is  larger  than  that  of 
a  single  family.  There  is  no  economic  necessity  that  a 
woman  and  her  children  shall  stay  with  her  husband, 
or  that  he  shaU  protect  and  provide  for  them,  since 
they  are  all  free  to  use  whatever  there  is  in  the  com- 
munity. Under  these  conditions  there  is,  however,  little 
communism  or  promiscuity,  but  many  of  the  matings 
are  temporary.  This  is  true  among  all  people  where 
marriage  is  not  socially  regulated,  especially  by  reli- 
gion. Nature  preserves  the  family  group  for  a  while,  but 
when  children  do  not  need  protection  the  group  is  fre- 
quently broken  up  unless  there  are  social  regulations 
that  help  to  preserve  it. 

Of  the  three  principal  types  of  the  family,  monogamy 
prevails  in  all  civilized  countries.  Besides  the  reasons 
given  above  for  that  type  of  family  being  found  in  all 
grades  of  civilization,  there  are  other  reasons  for  its 
survival  among  more  highly  developed  people.  One 
reason  is  that  it  results  usually  in  the  birth  of  more 
children,  and  always  in  their  better  care,  than  do  other 
systems,  except  under  special  temporary  conditions.  A 
group  of  people  practicing  promiscuity,  polygyny  or 
polyandry,  could  not,  therefore,  survive  in  competition 
with  one  practicing  monogamy.  Another  reason  is  that 
a  family  furnishes  better  conditions  for  the  development 


192  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

of  the  higher  social  and  intellectual  qualities.  There 
are,  therefore,  biological,  sociological,  and  psychological 
reasons  why  the  people  practicing  monogamy  have  sur- 
vived as  the  strongest  and  most  civilized. 

Closely  associated  with  regulation  of  marriage  and 
the  typical  kinds  of  families  are  the  customs  regard- 
ing heredity  and  family  relationship.  In  most  civilized 
countries  persons  are  recognized  as  being  related 
through  either  parent,  but  more  importance  is  usually 
attached  to  heredity  in  the  male  line.  Among  some 
tribes,  however,  heredity  is  counted  only  through  the 
males,  while  in  others  it  is  counted  only  through  the 
females.  One  is  called  the  patriarchal  and  the  other 
the  matriarchal  system.  The  first  would  seem  naturally 
to  be  more  frequently  associated  with  polygyny  or  with 
the  idea  of  the  priestly  character  of  the  father,  while 
the  second  would  seem  to  be  more  appropriate  to  pol- 
yandry, communism,  or  temporary  unions.  Although  this 
seems  a  reasonable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  these 
customs,  yet  proof  is  lacking  and  the  facts  show  that 
there  may  be  cross-relationships.  The  North  American 
Indians,  for  example,  practice  polygyny  to  some  extent, 
and  yet  count  heredity  through  the  mother. 

The  socializing  influence  of  the  family.  Family  life 
inevitably  exerts  a  very  great  socializing  influence  upon 
its  members.  Even  in  our  individualistic  country  this 
influence  is  profound.  When  two  young  people  marry, 
identify  their  interests,  and  live  in  close  companion- 
ship, each,  if  the  relation  is  to  be  agreeable,  must  act 
not  merely  to  please  himself,  but  the  other  party  to 
the  alliance.  In  other  forms  of  association  one  sort  of 
adjustment  is  made  with  one  person  and  another  with 
another  person  or  group  of  people,  but  in  marriage 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  193 

there  is  a  more  complete  and  varied  adjustment  of 
many  phases  of  life  to  each  other's  needs  and  a  more 
complete  unifying  of  all  interests. 

When  children  are  born  their  welfare  usually  be- 
comes the  dominant  motive  for  action,  and  whatever  is 
proposed  is  decided  largely  with  reference  to  the  good 
of  the  children.  The  mother  must  continually  sacrifice 
her  desires  for  their  welfare  and  the  father  must  mod- 
ify his  action  because  of  them  and  on  account  of  the 
changed  conduct  of  the  mother.  Both  feel  a  responsi- 
bility that  they  never  felt  for  themselves  or  for  each 
other  and  regulate  their  conduct  accordingly.  The  chil- 
dren are  at  first  absolutely  helpless,  and  the  parents 
must  care  for  them  or  they  will  die.  Later  they  must 
be  properly  dressed  and  trained  or  they  will  be  an  an- 
noyance and  a  disgrace  to  the  parents.  So  long  as  fam- 
ily obligations  are  recognized  in  the  community,  they 
cannot  be  ignored  by  individuals. 

The  effect  of  family  life  upon  children  is  still  more 
profoimd.  They  feel  their  absolute  dependence  upon 
adults  and  respond  to  the  expression  of  their  love.  They 
receive  their  first  lessons  in  regulating  their  conduct 
from  parents  and  have  as  their  first  companions  the 
other  members  of  the  family.  The  child's  health  is 
guarded  and  his  intelligence,  tastes,  morals,  and  reli- 
gious impulses  are  stimulated  and  directed  by  the  home 
life,  as  would  not  be  possible  in  a  larger  group  or  in  a 
group  of  one  age  and  sex  with  no  special  love  for  and 
obligations  toward  him.  Family  life  with  its  close  com- 
mon interests  necessarily  means  regulation  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

If  famUy  life  and  family  obligations  were  aU  abol- 
ished, there  would  result  an  extreme  individualism  in 


194  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

which  each  individual  would  recognize  no  permanent 
obligation  to  any  one  else.  Each  would  act  according 
to  his  own  desires  except  as  he  was  temporarily  influ- 
enced by  an  individual  or  a  group,  or  there  would  be 
developed  in  a  much  higher  degree  some  other  regulat- 
ing influence,  such  as  that  of  the  community,  the  state 
or  nation,  or  humanity,  or  deity.  Highly  developed 
human  beings  might  have  their  lives  regulated  in  some 
respects  by  such  influences,  but  probably  none  of  them 
could  so  stimulate  and  regulate  every  phase  of  the  life 
of  hmnan  beings,  especially  of  small  children,  as  can 
the  small  family  group. 

Statistics  show  that  juvenile  delinquency  is  much 
more  common  in  homes  where  there  is  only  one  parent, 
especially  if  the  parents  have  been  divorced.  It  is  also 
found  that  the  best  institution  for  orphans  is  one  in 
which  a  comparatively  small  group  of  children,  with 
one  or  more  older  persons,  form  an  artificial  family. 
Even  that  is  inferior  to  a  moderately  good  home,  and 
it  is  generally  agreed  among  social  workers  that  it  is 
better  to  get  children  adopted  into  respectable  homes 
than  it  is  to  place  them  in  even  the  best  institutions. 

Regulation  of  marriage.  As  has  been  indicated,  mar- 
riage has  always  been  regulated  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent. Religious  traditions  have  until  recently  had  most 
influence  in  the  making  and  enforcing  of  these  regula- 
tions, which  have  heretofore  only  incidentally  been  con- 
cerned with  the  birth  of  healthy  children  and  the  pro- 
vision of  a  proper  home  for  them. 

Since  attention  has  been  called  to  the  importance  to 
society  of  having  born  as  many  superior  and  as  few  in- 
ferior children  as  possible,  and  to  the  value  of  the  fam- 
ily as  the  institution  best  suited  to  promote  their  phys- 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  195 

ical,  mental,  and  moral  welfare,  in  preparing  them  to 
become  useful  members  of  society,  a  new  type  of  legis- 
lation has  appeared.  Many  states  have  laws  prohibit- 
ing the  marriage  of  insane,  feeble-minded,  or  diseased 
persons.  Some  require  health  certificates,  and  some  go 
still  further  and  provide  for  the  asexualization  of  per- 
sons who  might,  it  is  thought,  produce  defective  chil- 
dren. This  is  a  move  in  the  right  direction,  but  in  many 
instances  it  is  a  more  or  less  blind  and  ineffectual  move. 
Much  more  study  is  needed  before  laws  can  be  framed 
that  will  bring  about  the  desired  results. 

In  the  mean  time  laws  requiring  the  registration  of 
births,  parentage,  and  physical  condition  of  the  children 
should  be  made  and  enforced  until  there  is  a  body  of 
facts  upon  which  wise  and  effective  legislation  may  be 
based.  Doubtless  also  laws  requiring  notice  of  intention 
before  marriage  may  prevent  some  hasty  and  unwise 
marriages.  Social  education  that  gives  higher  ideals  of 
parenthood  and  honors  those  who  produce  children  of  a 
high  type  is  an  important,  positive  help. 

Laws  making  the  husband  economically  responsible 
for  the  care  of  wife  and  children  are  doubtless  of  value 
in  preserving  the  family  unit.  Such  laws  should  prob- 
ably be  applied  in  nearly  the  same  way  to  illegitimate 
as  to  legitimate  children.  Persons  who  have  given  be- 
ing to  a  child  have  performed  an  act  in  which  the 
whole  social  body  is  interested,  and  should  be  held  re- 
sponsible as  far  as  possible  for  supplying  the  family  life 
that  children  need. 

Divorce.  This  topic  is  often  made  to  read,  "The 
divorce  evil."  In  view  of  what  has  been  said  of  the 
functions  of  the  family,  and  of  the  fact  that  there  has 
never  been,  and  perhaps  never  will  be,  any  institution 


196  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

developed  that  can  so  well  perform  all  these  functions, 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  destruction  of  family  life  is  an 
evil.  This  does  not  necessarily  m^an  that  divorce  is 
destroying  family  life  and  is  evil.  It  may  mean  merely 
that  families  where  it  occm*s  have  already  failed  to  be 
successful  and  that  the  number  of  divorces  is  merely 
an  index  of  the  number  of  such  failures. 

This  view  has  some  support  in  the  fact  that  four 
times  as  many  divorces  occur  in  cases  where  there  are 
no  children  and  in  the  additional  fact  that  over  half  of 
the  divorces  granted  are  for  adultery  and  for  desertion. 

The  truth  probably  is  that  divorce  is  primarily  an 
index  of  the  number  of  failures  of  family  life  and  only 
incidentally  the  cause  of  such  failure.  Laws  have  a 
good  deal  of  effect  upon  customs  and  sentiment,  hence 
easy  divorce  laws  may  lead  to  less  importance  being 
attached  to  marriage  and  its  obligations.  Again,  nu- 
merous divorces  make  more  evident  the  frequency  of 
the  failure  of  family  life,  and  thus  perhaps  lessen  the 
social  disgrace  of  such  failure.  These  influences  are, 
however,  comparatively  slight,  and  the  influence  of  the 
law  may  probably  be  made  more  effective  through  strict 
regulation  of  marriage  and  family  life  than  it  can 
through  difficulty  of  divorce. 

The  fact  that  divorce  is  not  easy  to  obtain  will  have 
little  influence  in  preventing  young  people  from  hasty 
or  unwise  marriages.  Strict  regulations  as  to  who  shall 
marry,  requirement  of  previous  declaration  of  intention, 
and  compelling  the  assumption  of  legal  obligations  dur- 
ing marriage  are  more  effective.  It  seems,  then,  that 
the  real  problem  is  not  that  of  putting  legal  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  divorce,  but  of  finding  the  causes  of  the 
failure  of  family  life  and  the  remedy  for  such  failure, 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  197 

or  possibly,  some  time  in  the  distant  future,  evolving 
some  institution  that  can  successfully  take  the  place  of 
the  family. 

Easy  divorce  laws  result  in  more  of  the  failures  in 
family  life  being  made  evident,  but  are  probably  far 
from  a  perfect  index  of  family  conditions.  In  Switzer- 
land, where  there  is  a  liberal  and  imiform  divorce  law, 
the  rate  of  divorce  to  marriage  varies  in  different  can- 
tons from  one  in  seven  to  one  in  two  hundred  and  fifty. 
Divorce  is  much  less  common  in  Catholic  countries 
than  in  Protestant,  and  everywhere  religious  and  social 
sentiment  has  more  influence  than  law  in  preserving 
the  appearance  of  family  life.  It  is  probable  that  they 
also  have  some  influence  upon  the  actual  conditions. 
Religion  and  sentiment  are  generally  opposed  to  indi- 
vidualism, which  puts  desire  ahead  of  duty;  hence  they 
help  to  preserve  family  life.  Again,  if  for  any  reason, 
social,  religious  or  other,  a  person  refuses  to  make  pub- 
lic the  failure  of  his  family  life,  he  must  then  make  the 
best  of  it,  and  may  perhaps  have  a  reasonably  success- 
ful home. 

Divorces  are  more  frequent  in  cities  than  in  rural 
sections  and  more  frequent  in  New  England  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  regions  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
country;  or,  in  other  words,  they  are  most  common 
among  native  whites  where  American  individualistic 
ideas  are  most  dominant. 

Statistics  show  that  there  are  more  divorces  in  the 
United  States  than  in  all  the  other  civilized  countries 
together,  and  that  the  proportion  of  divorces  to  mar- 
riages has  more  than  doubled  in  thirty  years,  the  ratio 
now  being  one  to  twelve. 

As  compared  with  the  various  other  causes  tending 


198  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

to  destroy  family  life,  the  chief  cause  of  increase  in  the 
number  of  divorces  is  undoubtedly  the  lessening  influ- 
ence of  religion  upon  social  sentiment  and  upon  laws. 
In  this  as  in  other  lines  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to 
make  laws  and  direct  conduct,  not  in  accordance  with 
religious  traditions,  but  by  more  or  less  established 
knowledge  of  results. 

The  Church  may  remain  a  powerful  factor  by  pre- 
serving its  traditions  and  sentiments  regarding  the 
sanctity  of  marriage,  but  the  legislature  and  the  scien- 
tific, social  reformers  must  devote  themselves  to  ascer- 
taining the  exact  functions  performed  by  the  family 
and  to  finding  the  best  way  of  insuring  by  legislation 
that  these  functions  shall  be  effectively  performed.  Per- 
haps the  State  may  do  most  by  promoting  economic 
welfare,  especially  in  the  line  of  housing  conditions. 

Family  life  and  modem  conditions.  In  rural  dis- 
tricts, family  life  is  similar  to  what  it  has  always  been, 
but  in  the  cities  the  family  is  taking  a  less  prominent 
place  among  social  institutions.  Economically  the  unity 
of  the  family  is  not  so  great.  Husband  and  wife  are 
often  both  wage-earners  and  separate  spenders.  Fur- 
nished apartments  and  dining  facilities  give  little  oc- 
casion for  combined  family  ownership  and  effort.  To 
only  a  slight  extent  do  the  parents  act  as  protectors. 
These  functions  are  performed  by  the  State,  the  police, 
the  fire  department,  the  board  of  health,  etc.  Clubs 
and  institutions  of  all  sorts  specialize  in  supplying  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  family  with  social  intercourse, 
recreation,  and  amusement,  while  the  school  has  taken 
over  a  large  part  of  the  educational  functions  of  the 
family,  and  the  Church  supplies  religious  instruction 
and  training. 


THE  FAMILY  AS  A  SOCIAL  GROUP  199 

It  sometimes  looks  as  if  the  family  as  the  universal 
nursery  of  the  young  might  disappear  and  specialized 
substitutes  be  provided  by  other  institutions.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  must  remember  that  even  in  the  large 
cities,  where  conditions  are  least  favorable  to  family 
life,  it  is  still  maintained  by  a  very  large  percentage  of 
the  people,  especially  in  homes  where  there  are  chil- 
dren. The  most  marked  effect  of  modem  conditions  up 
to  the  present  time  has  been  to  increase  the  number  of 
persons  who  do  not  marry  and  to  lead  more  married 
people  to  forego  parenthood.  With  few  exceptions  those 
who  do  have  children  make  considerable  sacrifices  in 
order  that  they  may  have  a  home  and  a  separate  family 
life.  This  indicates  that  in  spite  of  the  influences  tend- 
ing to  disintegrate  the  home  and  family  life,  there  axe 
powerful  instincts  and  traditions  that  are  maintaining 
it  and  conserving  its  usefulness  for  at  least  the  younger 
children. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Compare  the  length  of  family  life  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  animals  with  that  of  the  haman  family. 

2.  Read  and  report  on  the  family  life  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans or  of  other  peoples. 

3.  Report  on  various  marriage  customs  where  religion  is 
and  where  it  is  not  a  prominent  feature.  Report  espe- 
cially regarding  the  religious  character  of  family  life  in 
Japan  and  in  ancient  Greece. 

4.  Read  and  report  regarding  different  types  of  families 
and  ways  of  counting  relationship. 

5.  Summarize  the  arguments  in  favor  of  monogamy. 

6.  Study  carefully  the  difference  in  the  social  development 
of  a  person  reared  in  a  large  orphan  asylum  from  in- 
fancy  and  one  reared  in  a  home  with  other  children. 


200  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

7.  Look  up  statistics  regarding  the  home  life  of  delin- 
quents. 

8.  Summarize  and  discuss  the  laws  regulating  marriage  in 
one  or  more  states. 

9.  Discuss  the  value  of  haby  shows  with  prizes  for  the 
most  perfect. 

10.  The  divorce  laws  and  the  divorce  statistics  of  one  or 
more  states  or  countries  may  be  compared  and  dis- 
cussed. 

11.  Should  ease  of  divorce  be  greater  for  childless  couples 
than  for  those  having  young  children  ? 

12.  What  influences  may  be  used  to  strengthen  family  life 
and  reduce  the  number  of  failures  ?  Can  the  schools  do 
anything  ? 

13.  A  statistical  study  might  be  made  of  a  certain  number 
of  families  to  find  how  many  meals  are  eaten  in  com- 
mon and  how  many  evenings  are  spent  at  home  by  all, 
and  to  what  extent  all  join  in  doing  the  same  things. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS 

The  primitive  community.  A  community  in  general 
consists  of  a  number  of  families  living  in  close  prox- 
imity, having  common  interests  and  associating  with 
one  another  in  various  ways. 

In  the  primitive  community,  many,  sometimes  all, 
the  families  were  related  and  the  whole  group  was  sim- 
ilar to  a  large  family  with  the  older  men  or  one  patri- 
arch at  the  head.  In  some  cases  much  of  the  property 
was  held  in  common.  This  was  true  of  part  of  the  land 
even  in  New  England  in  the  early  days.  In  nearly  all 
cases  most  of  the  necessities  of  life  were  produced  in 
the  community,  although  some  trade  was  usually  car- 
ried on  with  other  groups.  In  early  times  this  was  often 
done  by  means  of  barter  at  fairs  held  at  more  or  less 
regular  intervals. 

Each  community  took  whatever  means  were  neces- 
sary to  protect  it  against  enemies  and  to  regulate  the 
conduct  of  families  or  individuals  who  interfered  with 
the  welfare  of  the  group  or  some  of  its  members.  This 
phase  of  community  life,  which  is  the  one  concerned 
with  providing  protection,  or  government,  was  then  as 
now  a  means  of  marking  off  one  community  from  an- 
other. Naturally  the  social  intercourse  and  the  play 
outside  of  the  small  family  circle  were  with  other  mem- 
bers of  the  community  and  in  accordance  with  its  cus- 
toms. There  was  more  or  less  music,  dancing,  story- 
telling, and  ornamentation  of  person,  clothes,  utensils, 


202  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  dwellings,  which  constituted  the  cultural  activity 
of  the  group.  These  were  usually  distinctive,  though 
influenced  by  contact  with  other  groups. 

In  the  primitive  community  the  religion  is  always 
the  same  for  every  individual  and  its  ceremonies  are  di- 
rected by  the  elders  or  by  a  priest.  The  moral  code  is 
based  chiefly  on  religious  traditions. 

The  modem  community.  Specialization   and   easy 
communication  make  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  define  a 
modern  community,  especially  in  urban  districts.   We 
may  still  say,  however,  that  it  consists  of  a  number  of 
families  living  near  each  other,  with  some  common  in- 
terests and  association.  In  modem  communities,  how- 
V        ever,  the  common  personal  interests  are  comparatively 
^C     few,  and  the  association  within  the  group  is  limited  as 
^  compared  with  that  outside  of  it.  In  the  modern  com- 
Umunity  there  is  usually  some  form  of  government,  and 
some  organizations  exist  to  which  a  large  proportion  of 
the  people  belong. 

In  rural  sections  the  community  is  the  school  dis- 
trict, the  town,  or  a  village.  In  some  sections,  especially 
in  the  South,  the  county  is  an  important  sociological 
unit,  but  it  is  rather  too  large  to  admit  that  pei-sonal 
association  of  its  inhabitants  necessary  to  a  commimity. 
A  small  city  is  a  community  in  itself,  and  in  a  way  this 
is  true  of  large  cities,  but  there  are  many  districts  in 
each  city  that  may  be  regarded  as  partially  separate 
communities.  In  many  cities,  however,  it  is  difficult  or 
impossible  to  distinguish  these  separate  communities. 
In  some  apartment  districts  it  may  truly  be  said  that 
there  is  no  community  association  worthy  the  name. 
Those  living  near  each  other  may  have  no  common 
interests  and  no  acquaintance.  Their  economic  inter- 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      203 

ests  are  in  various  places  and  their  social  interests, 
amusements,  and  cultural  opportunities  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  city  and  surrounding  country,  or 
perhaps  in  other  cities.  Even  if  they  happen  to  be  of 
the  same  religion,  it  is  a  chance  whether  they  will  at- 
tend the  same  church  as  their  immediate  neighbors. 

In  what  are  called  residential  districts  the  conditions 
are  similar,  but  sometimes  common  interest  in  a  local 
church  or  a  school,  or  in  street  improvement,  sewers, 
or  other  public  necessities,  may  lead  to  acquaintance 
and  united  action  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people  in 
the  neighborhood.  Such  a  community  is  never  econom- 
ically independent,  but  receives  nearly  all  its  necessities 
from  other  communities,  many  of  them  very  distant. 
It  has  no  separate  government,  and  other  than  local 
talent  is  frequently  drawn  upon  for  recreation  and  cul- 
ture. 

In  some  portions  of  a  city,  therefore,  definite  com- 
munities are  easily  distinguishable,  but  very  rarely  are 
there  as  many  evident  common  interests,  or  as  general 
a  personal  acquaintance  and  sharing  in  all  sorts  of  ac- 
tivities with  the  same  people,  as  in  the  more  primitive 
community. 

The  community  life  of  a  large  city  is  as  important, 
though  less  personal,  than  in  smaller  places.  No  matter 
how  large  a  city  may  be,  it  is  a  community  just  as  the 
modem  shoe  manufactory  is  a  shoemaker's  shop,  al- 
though not  an  individual  in  it  may  be  capable  of  mak- 
ing a  complete  shoe.  All  the  people  of  a  city  do  have 
common  interests  of  all  sorts,  and  the  happiness  of  each 
person  is  dependent  upon  what  other  groups  of  people 
do,  although  this  is  not  so  evident  in  their  personal  re- 
lations as  in  a  small  community.  The  things  upon  which 


204  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

a  person's  life,  comfort,  and  happiness  depend  are  for 
the  most  part,  however,  provided  by  institutions  and 
persons  regarding  whom  he  has  little  or  no  personal 
knowledge.  It  is  advantageous  to  be  in  a  city  that  is 
economically  prosperous,  that  is  well  governed,  where 
there  are  good  facilities  for  social  intercourse,  recrea- 
tion, and  cultural  opportunities,  and  where  the  reli- 
gious beliefs  are  not  too  different  from  one's  own.  A 
city  is,  therefore,  a  community  in  which  the  commtmity 
life  is  so  specialized  and  institutionalized  that  it  is  hard 
to  recognize  it  and  one  misses  the  personal  feature  so 
prominent  in  the  old-time  community. 

Community  institutions  and  progress.  In  every  com- 
munity, large  and  small,  there  are  matters  which  con- 
cern all  the  people  that  can  be  dealt  with  successfully 
only  by  some  form  of  common  action.  This  common 
effort  takes  two  principal  forms,  that  of  political  action 
and  the  organization  of  societies  working  for  various 
purposes.  Successful  action  for  the  good  of  all  by  either 
means  is  more  difficult  than  in  the  primitive  commu- 
nity, because  the  problems  are  more  complex  both 
within  the  community  itself  and  in  relation  to  other 
communities,  and  because  conditions  are  continually 
changing  so  that  past  experience  and  usage  cannot  be 
relied  upon  to  direct  present  action  as  much  as  formerly. 
It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  many  foolish  and 
unworkable  laws  are  passed  and  many  organizations 
formed  that  accomplish  little  or  nothing  for  the  general 
welfare.  Many  such  societies  expend  all  their  energy 
in  keeping  themselves  alive,  and  the  objects  for  which 
they  were  formed  are  slightly  if  at  all  furthered  by 
their  existence.  In  general,  new  societies  formed  for  a 
specific  purpose  accomplish  most.  Under  present  con- 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      205 

ditions  many  of  them  succeed  best  by  demonstrating 
community  needs  and  means  of  meeting  them,  then  se- 
curing political  action  that  puts  the  matter  under  pub- 
lic control  and  leaves  the  society  no  further  excuse  for 
existing.  Good  roads,  playgrounds,  and  libraries  have 
resulted  from  this  kind  of  organized  effort. 

Social  progress  and  community  action.  Civilization 
progresses  in  proportion  as  modes  of  cooperative  group 
action  become  perfected  and  embodied  in  successfully 
working  institutions  and  laws.  The  lack  of  progress 
in  China,  where  the  people  are  intellectually  capable, 
may  be  largely  accounted  for  by  the  persistence  of 
hampering  customs  originating  in  superstitious  beliefs, 
and  by  the  failure  of  the  Chinese  to  learn  from  experi- 
ence what  methods  of  cooperating  are  valuable  and  to 
fix  them  by  permanent  institutions  and  laws.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Chinese  are  ingenious  in  devising  credit  and 
insurance  schemes  for  the  advantage  of  the  persons 
concerned.  Ten  men  will,  perhaps,  pool  all  their  cap- 
ital and  give  to  one  of  them  the  use  of  it  for  a  certain 
period,  then  to  another,  till  all  have  had  the  use  of  the 
combined  amount.  If  all  live  and  meet  their  obliga- 
tions it  is  advantageous  to  all,  but  loss  may  come 
through  death  or  the  failure  of  one.  They  seem  to 
have  no  idea  of  forming  a  permanent  institution  that 
can  function  successfully  for  generations,  no  matter 
what  happens  to  individual  members,  providing  certain 
rules  are  followed,  as  has  been  done  by  Western  fi- 
nanciers in  devising  building  and  loan  associations,  co- 
operative banks,  and  cooperative  credit  institutions. 

The  Chinese  are  also  ingenious  in  devising  means  of 
insurance  against  loss,  but  have  never  embodied  the 
most  useful  of  these  ideas  in  a  permanent  institution. 


206  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

They  organize  many  societies,  but  do  not  develop 
them  so  as  to  make  them  permanent.  For  instance,  to 
save  each  man  the  trouble  of  watching  his  own  crop,  a 
meeting  is  called  and  arrangements  are  made  for  re- 
porting thefts  and  imposing  fines  for  failure  to  report, 
and  a  temporary  court  of  trial  is  established,  but  they 
evolve  no  permanent  institution  with  officials  acting 
according  to  certain  laws  for  the  protection  of  property. 
The  cooperation  for  common  interest  is  temporary  and 
for  the  advantage  only  of  the  persons  taking  the  action. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  representatives  of  national 
authority  that  may  be  appealed  to,  but  for  the  most 
part  they  also  act  as  seems  to  them  fitting  or  advan- 
tageous especially  to  themselves  and  not  with  the  idea 
of  developing  and  administering  a  governmental  insti- 
tution in  accordance  with  rules  that  will  work  effec- 
tively for  many  generations  regardless  of  who  may  be 
iu  office. 

Koads  are  in  wretched  condition  because  no  perma- 
nently valuable  means  of  dealing  with  this  common  need 
has  been  developed.  The  road  is  on  private  land,  and 
the  owner  not  only  does  not  keep  it  in  repair,  but  if  he 
needs  soil  elsewhere  he  may  dig  it  from  the  road,  which, 
by  the  flow  of  water,  is  then  transformed  into  a  ditch. 
This  unsystematic  arrangement  is  made  more  or  less 
sacred  by  custom  and  superstition,  so  that  permanent 
enlightened  improvement  is  hindered.  For  example,  a 
wealthy  and  progressive  woman  built  a  road  that  was 
of  great  advantage  to  herself  and  others,  but  when 
soon  afterwards  there  was  an  epidemic  of  influenza  the 
people  believed  that  it  was  caused  by  the  road  and 
were  barely  prevented  from  destroying  it. 

In  every  village  there  is  a  common  need  for  water, 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      207 

but  this  need  is  met  by  individual  rather  than  by  insti- 
tutional means.  Wells  are  not  numerous,  and  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  draw  the  water,  so  men  make  a  business  of 
drawing  and  carrying  it  to  those  who  do  not  wish  to 
go  for  it  themselves.  A  missionary  in  one  place,  in 
return  for  favors  received,  proposed  to  put  a  pump  in 
a  central  well.  The  leading  men  of  the  village  con- 
sidered the  proposition  and  asked  him  not  to  do  so. 
They  said  it  would  not  be  fair  to  the  people  who  were 
near  other  wells  unless  pumps  were  placed  in  them 
also,  that  the  water-carriers  would  be  deprived  of  their 
means  of  livelihood,  and  then,  besides,  if  they  got  used 
to  having  a  pump  and  it  got  out  of  order  and  would 
not  work,  what  would  they  do? 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  people  of 
Western  nations  are  far  ahead  of  the  Chinese,  not 
because  of  their  greater  intelligence  or  their  greater 
ability  to  cooperate,  but  because  they  are  less  boimd 
by  hampering  customs  and  superstitions  and  more  in- 
clined to  look  ahead  to  the  good  of  posterity  in  their 
cooperative  acts,  profiting  by  past  experiences  in  such 
a  way  that  permanent  institutions  with  increasingly 
better  methods  of  working  are  developed.  Such  insti- 
tutions well  organized  and  managed  best  promote 
efficiency.  Progress  is  indicated  by  special  cooperative 
acts  for  new  purposes  or  to  meet  special  conditions 
and  by  the  formation  and  improvement  of  new  insti- 
tutions. Efficiency  and  progress  are  favored  when  the 
government  is  such  that  the  local  community  has  a 
good  deal  of  responsibility  for  its  own  affairs  and  the 
central  government  of  state  or  nation  has  final  author- 
ity to  legalize  those  institutions  and  rules  of  procedure 
that  have  been  shown  to  be  permanently  useful.   This 


208  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

it  may  do  partly  by  compulsion  and  partly  by  educar 
tion.  For  example,  a  community  may  be  required  to 
establish  a  hospital,  poor-farm,  school,  or  sewerage  sys- 
tem, and  to  administer  these  according  to  rules  pre- 
scribed by  state  law,  or  the  administration  may  be  in 
the  hands  of  state  officials ;  or  the  state  may  establish 
bureaus  whose  business  it  is  to  inform  the  various  com- 
munities of  the  best  ways  so  far  discovered  for  meeting 
their  common  needs,  as  is  done  in  agriculture  and  some- 
times in  education. 

Perhaps  the  state  may  require  that  the  need  shall 
be  met  and  possibly  establish  an  institution  to  meet 
it,  but  have  the  commimity  choose  the  officials  and 
carry  out  the  plans  that  seem  to  them  best.  The 
special  function  of  the  state  government  is  to  provide 
for  common  community  needs  by  those  institutions 
and  laws  that  have  proved  to  be  of  universal  value, 
while  the  community  should  have  the  responsibility  of 
using  these  established  means  and  methods  with  varia- 
tions of  detail  so  as  to  meet  its  own  special  conditions 
and  necessities  or  desires. 

Changes  are  continually  taking  place  which  make  in- 
dividual or  family  effort  and  control  less  advantageous 
than  group  action  by  special  organizations,  these  in  turn 
giving  place  to  public  control  by  the  community  or  per- 
haps by  the  state. 

If  this  process  should  go  on  until  all  needs  are  rec- 
ognized as  common  and  the  state  should  assume  the 
function  of  supplying  them,  there  would  be  the  condi- 
tion dreamed  of  by  the  socialists.  How  far  changes  in 
this  direction  may  go  with  advantage  cannot  be  deter- 
mined by  reasoning,  any  more  than  the  physicist  can 
determine  the  effect  upon  any  substance  of  lowering 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      209 

the  temperature  to  absolute  zero.  Without  experiment 
he  could  not  infer  the  sudden  change  from  gas  to  liquid 
or  from  liquid  to  solid  that  takes  place  with  decrease 
in  temperature.  In  a  similar  way  it  is  idle  for  a  sociol- 
ogist who  wishes  to  be  strictly  scientific  to  reason  on 
purely  theoretical  grounds  regarding  socialism.  The 
results  of  each  change  toward  more  complete  govern- 
mental control  may  be  studied,  its  advantages  weighed, 
and  the  probable  effects  of  further  changes  inferred, 
but  long-range  predictions  as  to  what  would  happen  if 
a  sudden  and  complete  revolution  were  made  are  not 
warranted  on  scientific  grounds.  Sociology  must,  as  far 
as  possible,  proceed  inductively  as  do  other  sciences  if 
it  is  to  be  a  real  science.  Hypotheses  may  be  formed, 
but  they  must  be  tested  by  actual  experiment  or  expe- 
rience before  they  can  be  considered  established  prin- 
ciples of  science.  One  of  the  advantages  of  local  control 
is  that  a  great  variety  of  methods  in  economic  and  so- 
cial lines  are  tested  by  experience. 

Community  problems.  The  chief  problems  of  com- 
munity life  in  this  country  are  these :  first,  to  utilize 
the  means  provided  by  the  state  for  supplying  common 
needs,  by  getting  men  in  office  who  are  sufficiently  in- 
telligent to  use  those  means  and  wisely  adapt  them  to 
local  conditions,  and  who  are  broad  enough  to  work  for 
the  advantage  of  the  whole  community  rather  than  for 
special  individuals  or  classes;  second,  to  decide  how 
much  money  shall  be  raised  and  expended  for  various 
public  purposes  ;  jbhird,  to  organize  and  carry  on  various 
cooperative  movements  and  societies  by  which  the  com- 
mon needs  and  desires  of  the  whole  community,  or  of 
special  classes  of  it,  that  are  not  provided  for  by  pub- 
lic institutions,  may  be  met  and  satisfied  more  easily 


210  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  effectively  than  is  possible  by  individual  or  family 
effort. 

The  solution  of  the  first  problem  is  greatly  furthered 
by  the  laws  prescribing  the  methods  of  electing  officials 
and  clearly  defining  their  duties  and  responsibilities. 
The  Australian  ballot  system  and  provision  for  decreas- 
ing the  number  of  persons  responsible  for  certain  func- 
tions, e.g.,  members  of  school  committees,  are  among 
the  most  valuable  improvements. 

Kaising  and  expending  money  for  public  purposes  is 
a  question  in  which  all  are  interested.  In  this  country 
money  for  local  purposes  is  obtained  chiefly  by  direct 
taxation  (property  and  poll  tax),  while  that  for  state 
and  nation  is  more  commonly  obtained  by  less  direct 
means,  such  as  the  tariff,  internal  revenue,  and  corpo- 
ration taxes.  This  makes  it  more  evident  to  the  people 
that  they  are  paying  for  their  roads,  schools,  etc.  Con- 
ditions differ  so  much  in  different  localities,  however, 
that  as  yet  no  completely  satisfactory  method  of  assess- 
ing property  has  been  evolved.  There  are  always  com- 
plaints that  assessments  are  unfair  and  there  is  no 
reliable  means  in  general  use  by  assessors  of  determin- 
ing the  facts. 

The  third  problem,  that  of  providing  by  means  of 
special  societies  for  the  common  interests  of  larger  or 
smaller  groups,  is  made  much  easier  by  the  existence 
of  well-organized  national  societies  with  local  chapters 
in  the  various  communities.  In  addition  to  these,  it  is 
often  a  good  thing  if  there  are  distinctly  local  societies 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  one  or  more  community 
interests. 

Rural  and  urban  communities.  It  may  be  stated  as 
a  general  principle  that  rural  life  is  more  favorable  to 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      211 

unity  of  family,  urban  life  to  that  of  the  community. 
Rural  life  is  also  favorable  to  the  intercourse  of  indi- 
viduals and  urban  to  the  working  of  institutions. 

In  rural  districts  each  family  has  its  own  house  and 
yard,  water,  sewerage,  and  lighting  system,  its  own 
means  of  transportation  and  protection  and  its  own 
bakery,  and  it  finds  the  means  of  satisfying  its  social, 
recreative,  cultural,  moral,  and  religious  needs  and  de- 
sires in  the  home  or  in  association  with  near  neighbors. 
The  majority  of  the  interests  of  the  farmer  are  connected 
with  family  possessions  and  activities,  hence  he  does  not 
readily  notice  or  properly  estimate  the  common  needs 
of  himself  and  neighbors.  It  is  often  hard,  for  example, 
to  get  him  interested  in  good  roads  or  in  cooperative 
buying  and  selling. 

In  urban  districts,  where  the  population  is  dense, 
separate  houses,  yards,  gardens,  water,  sewerage,  and 
lighting  systems  for  each  family  are  impossible,  while 
home  work,  play,  amusement,  social  intercourse,  cul- 
tural and  religious  activities  are  replaced  by  special 
institutional  activities.  Permanent  public  provision  re- 
garding dwellings,  streets,  water,  sewerage,  garbage  dis- 
posal, fire  protection,  and  lighting  is  almost  absolutely 
necessary  if  people  are  to  live  so  densely  in  health  and 
comfort.  Experience  also  shows  that  recreation  and 
cultural  facilities  may  be  provided  more  abundantly 
and  cheaply  by  society  or  community  action  than  by  the 
separate  efforts  of  the  family. 

People  of  urban  communities  become  accustomed  to 
doing  and  having  things  done  through  institutions,  and 
thus  are  much  more  receptive  to  ideas  along  that  line 
than  the  country  dweller.  On  the  other  hand,  urban 
people  sacrifice  much  of  their  home  life  for  institutional 


212  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

life.  Many  citizens  are,  however,  interested  only  in  spe- 
cial institutions,  and  do  not  realize  how  all  are  related 
or  how  closely  their  interests  are  concerned  with  all  and 
especially  with  their  control  and  regulation  by  local  and 
state  action.  This  is  one  reason  why  city  government 
has  been  so  costly  and  inefficient.  The  extension  of 
government  control  into  new  forms  of  protection  and 
into  the  providing  of  facilities  for  recreation  and  cul- 
ture has  increased  interest  in  local  government  and  is 
leading  to  great  improvements  in  municipal  affairs. 

In  the  rural  districts  the  chief  common  interest  met 
by  an  institution  under  public  control  has  been  the 
school.  People  of  rural  communities  have  learned, 
however,  of  what  is  being  done  in  cities  in  other  lines, 
and,  after  various  fruitless  attempts  at  economic  coop- 
eration by  means  of  institutions,  are  now  succeeding 
in  many  places  in  carrying  on  cooperative  creameries, 
grain  elevators,  and  fruit  exchanges.  In  thickly  settled 
rural  Denmark  this  has  been  done  to  an  extraordinary 
extent  and  is  associated  with  a  well-developed  credit 
system.  Such  economic  cooperation  is  not  likely  to  be 
very  successfvd  except  in  rather  thickly  settled  regions 
and  where  there  are  only  a  few  varieties  of  products. 

In  a  few  rural  communities  in  this  country  the  peo- 
ple already  cooperate  in  social,  recreational,  and  cul- 
tural activities  in  a  public  way,  and  it  may  be  expected 
that  this  will  everywhere  sooner  or  later  follow  success- 
ful economic  cooperation. 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  FUNCTIONS      213 

EXERCISES 

1.  Report  upon  the  community  life  of  various  peoples, 
especially  of  China  or  India. 

2.  Describe  dLflferent  types  of  community  life,  pointing  out 
to  what  extent  there  are  common  interests  and  coopera- 
tive acts  and  institutions  concerned  in  meeting  them. 

3.  Is  cooperative  action  more  or  less  necessary  in  a  rural 
than  in  a  city  community  ?  Why  ? 

4.  Describe  organizations  that  you  know  which  have  ac- 
complished their  object  and  have  ceased  to  exist,  and 
others  that  are  merely  keeping  themselves  alive. 

5.  Trace  the  history  of  some  institution,  such  as  that  of 
insurance  companies,  and  show  how  cooperation  of  in- 
dividuals, successful  and  unsuccessful,  leads  to  the  for- 
mation of  permanent,  eflBciently  working  institutions. 

6.  Report  regarding  the  change  from  individual  effort  to 
institutional  activity  and  then  to  governmental  regula- 
tion and  control  of  some  means  of  satisfying  a  common 
need,  e.g.,  roads  and  railways,  lighting  systems,  or  play- 
grounds, and  note  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
coming  from  the  change. 

7.  Which  is  best  suited  for  state  and  which  for  local  com- 
miinity  management,  schools  or  prisons  ?  Why  ? 

8.  What  is  the  Australian  ballot  system  and  what  are  its 
advantages  over  the  system  formerly  in  use?  What 
other  improvements  have  been  made  and  proposed  for 
getting  better  men  in  office?  Discuss  also  the  initiative 
and  the  referendum. 

9.  What  is  the  chief  advantage  of  a  commission  form  of 
municipal  government  over  that  of  two  representative 
boards? 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  so-called  "short  bal- 
lots "  ? 

11.  Should  taxes  be  higher  on  land  or  on  improvements? 
Why? 

12.  Discuss  various  proposed  tax  reforms. 


214  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

13.  Describe  the  working  of  a  society  in  a  community  that 
you  know  and  state  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of 
its  being  a  branch  of  a  national  organization. 

14.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  grange  movement  and  of  the 
early  and  later  attempts  at  cooperative  buying  and  sell- 
ing in  this  country.  Also  study  what  has  been  done  in 
England  and  in  Scandinavian  countries  in  the  way  of 
economic  cooperation. 

15.  Discuss  the  need  of  a  rural  credit  system  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

COMMUNITY  STUDIES  — GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 

Value.  Social  surveys  of  a  certain  type  have  for 
many  decades  been  made  by  the  census  bureaus  of  our 
own  and  other  civilized  countries.  Of  recent  years  these 
have  been  much  more  complete  and  detailed  than  for- 
merly. Many  states  have  also  conducted  census  studies, 
and  there  is  now  a  growing  belief  that  much  may  be 
gained  from  more  detailed  community  surveys.  This  is 
partly  because  of  increased  appreciation  of  the  fact  that 
every  community  is  a  cooperating  social  group,  and  that 
the  happiness  and  welfare  of  each  class  of  persons 
and  of  every  individual  depend  upon  the  ways  in  which 
various  community  activities  are  carried  on. 

Another  cause  of  increased  belief  in  community  sur- 
veys is  the  valuable  results  that  have  been  obtained  in 
manufacturing  and  commercial  institutions  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  every  phase  of  the  business  and  the  rela- 
tion of  one  process  to  another.  This  is  something  more 
than  the  long-established  custom  of  business  institu- 
tions of  taking  account  of  stock  at  regular  intervals, 
to  determine  to  what  extent  the  business  is  prospering. 
Now  different  parts  of  the  business  are  studied  to  deter- 
mine which  are  profitable  and  which  are  not,  and  in 
manufacturing  establishments  even  the  exact  cost  of 
each  article  produced  and  of  each  process  concerned  in 
its  production  is  estimated.  This  has  led  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  efficiency  of  the  processes,  machines,  and 


216  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

workers.  Out  of  these  studies  have  developed  the  sci- 
ence and  the  professiou  of  efficiency  engineering. 

The  same  ideas  and  methods  may  be  applied  to  the 
study  of  community  activities.  Community  life  is  really 
a  problem  in  social  engineering,  and  in  the  course  of 
time  a  science  and  a  profession  for  dealing  with  it  will 
probably  be  developed.  The  problem  to  be  solved  is  to 
determine  how  the  commimity  activities  may  be  most 
efficiently  directed  so  as  to  supply  the  common  needs, 
economic,  protective,  recreational,  social,  cultural,  moral 
and  religious,  and  educational.  A  detailed  survey  of 
the  community  will  show  more  or  less  clearly  how  com- 
pletely and  efficiently  the  community  needs  are  being 
met  and  what  possibilities  of  improvement  there  are. 

Purposes  of  a  survey.  The  purpose  of  a  community 
survey  may  be  general  or  special.  In  a  general  survey 
the  chief  aim  is  to  get  a  more  complete  knowledge  of 
the  community  life  in  all  its  phases,  either  as  a  study 
for  purely  scientific  purposes  or  with  the 'practical  idea 
of  learning  what  may  be  done  for  the  improvement  of 
the  community.  In  both  cases  as  many  facts  as  possible 
should  be  collected,  classified,  and  interpreted.  In  order 
to  do  this  successfully,  definite  figures  must  be  obtained 
or  approximate  estimates  made  and  compared  with 
corresponding  figures  from  other  communities  as  nearly 
like  the  one  being  studied  as  possible.  This  wiU  show 
how  the  community  in  question  ranks,  in  various  re- 
spects, with  other  communities  of  a  similar  type  and 
size.  The  figures  showing  the  present  condition  of  the 
community  should  also  be  compared  with  conditions  as 
they  were  in  the  past,  to  show  what  kinds  of  changes 
are  taking  place. 

Up  to  the  present  time  there  have  not  been  enough 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  217 

detaile<i  surveys  made  to  establish  standards  that  can 
be  used  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  It  is  usually  neces- 
sary to  figure  out  approximate  standards  by  taking  the 
census  reports  and  the  public  documents  of  several 
communities  similar  in  size  and  type  to  the  one  being 
studied. 

Sometimes  the  purpose  of  a  survey  is  not  only  to 
discover  need  for  improvements,  but  to  formulate  defi- 
nite plans  for  bringing  them  about.  This  goes  some- 
what further  than  movements  for  a  civic  betterment  in 
the  community.  It  considers  not  only  the  institutions 
and  persons  that  are  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  com- 
munity, but  also  the  natural  conditions  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  planning  future  growth  and  improvement  in 
both  material  and  social  lines.  The  new  movement  for 
city  planning  requires  this  sort  of  a  survey. 

Sometimes  the  purpose  of  a  survey  is  for  some  im- 
mediate practical  end,  such,  for  instance,  as  to  deter- 
mine whether  there  will  be  sufficient  custom  to  support 
a  business  of  a  certain  kind,  or  to  determine  the  health 
conditions  in  bakeries,  or  to  find  out  whether  additional 
playground  facilities  would  be  valuable,  or  to  determine 
what  new  lines  of  church  activity  are  needed  to  reach 
all  classes  of  people.  In  such  cases  as  these  many  of 
the  general  facts  and  figures  obtained  by  a  general  sur- 
vey will  be  of  value,  but  the  principal  attention  will 
naturally  be  given  to  facts,  whether  they  can  or  cannot 
be  expressed  nimierically,  that  have  any  bearing  upon 
the  end  being  sought. 

How  surveys  are  made.  Surveys  have  usually  been 
undertaken  by  some  organization  which  raises  money, 
employs  one  or  more  experts,  and  secures  the  coopera- 
tion of  as  many  individuals  and  organizations  as  pos* 


218  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

sible.  A  complete  and  accurate  survey  of  even  a  small 
community  requires  a  good  deal  of  time  to  collect  and 
tabulate  aU  the  facts  that  may  be  significant  for  sci- 
entific or  practical  purposes,  and  still  more  time  to 
compare  them  with  those  obtained  from  other  surveys 
and  determine  the  status  and  special  needs  of  the  com- 
munity studied.  The  degree  of  completeness  of  a  sur- 
vey may,  however,  vary  from  an  exact  enumeration  and 
tabulation  of  all  facts  to  mere  observation  and  estima- 
tion of  conditions,  supplemented  by  information  and 
opinions  obtained  from  prominent  people  and  by  a  few 
census  figures.  The  latter  type  of  survey  may  be  made 
by  a  single  individual.  This  is  done  by  persons  engaged 
in  city  planning,  by  individuals  who  wish  a  more  com- 
plete knowledge  of  their  community  or  of  some  phase 
of  its  life,  or  by  students  of  sociology  and  education 
who  wish  some  first-hand  experience  in  studying  social 
phenomena. 

The  writer  has  found  that  university  and  normal 
students  are  able  in  a  comparatively  short  time  to  col- 
lect and  organize  the  facts  regarding  their  home  com- 
munity in  a  way  that  gives  them  a  much  better  under- 
standing of  it  and  of  community  life  in  general  than 
they  have  had  before.  They  also  bring  out  facts  that 
are  surprising  and  suggestive  to  old  residents  who  have 
rarely  considered  their  community  in  a  broad,  system- 
atic, comparative  way.  On  the  other  hand,  the  yoimg 
investigator  may  learn  much  from  citizens  that  wiU  help 
him  to  interpret  the  facts  that  he  has  collected.  He  will 
also  be  greatly  helped  by  studying  the  surveys  that  have 
been  made  in  other  communities  and  by  reading  of  com- 
munity life  in  other  lands. 

Those  who  attempt  surveys  must  very  carefully  dia- 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  219 

tinguish  between  opinions  and  facts  tliat  can  be  verified 
and  enumerated,  and  while  giving  some  weight  to  the 
opinions  of  representative  people  should  collect  as 
many  exact  facts  as  possible.  They  should  not  be  hasty 
in  reaching  conclusions  and  should  be  sure  of  the 
grounds  upon  which  they  are  based.  It  is  usually  best 
in  any  survey  to  start  with  the  facts  regarding  the  ge- 
ography of  the  region,  the  character  of  the  population, 
and  the  number  and  kind  of  organizations,  then  pro- 
ceed to  the  special  topic  or  topics  of  inquiry.  The 
census  reports  and  public  documents  of  the  place,  po- 
lice and  school  reports,  etc.,  and  directory,  if  any,  will 
prove  useful,  as  will  also  the  reports  of  organizations 
of  all  kinds  and  the  facts  that  can  be  supplied  by  their 
ofBcials.  In  addition  to  this  the  investigator  will  need 
to  observe,  estimate,  and  enumerate,  if  possible,  many 
other  facts. 

Geographical  conditions.  In  every  general  survey 
geographical  conditions  must  receive  attention.  In  rural 
communities  the  natural  geographical  conditions  are 
most  important,  while  in  urban  communities  the  arti- 
ficial conditions  produced  by  man,  such  as  the  way  in 
which  the  city  is  laid  out,  the  means  of  transportation 
and  communication,  the  kinds  of  business  organized 
and  buildings  constructed,  are  of  most  significance. 

In  a  rural  community  climate  and  soil  are  of  first 
importance,  and  they  determine  to  a  considerable  extent 
the  kinds  of  crops  produced  and  the  density  of  the 
population.  If  the  country  is  level  or  markets  distant, 
field  crops  are  often  raised  and  much  machinery  is  em- 
ployed on  comparatively  large  farms.  If  the  country  is 
hilly  and  rocky,  machinery  will  be  used  less,  the  farms 
will  be  smaller,  and  the  crops  of  a  different  character. 


220  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Near  a  large  city,  fruit  aud  garden  products  are  more 
likely  to  be  raised,  but  with  the  present  means  of  trans- 
portation, communities  favorably  situated  for  producing 
early  fruits  and  vegetables  may,  by  proper  cooperation, 
market  them  in  cities  a  thousand  miles  distant. 

The  discovery  of  minerals  and  oil  in  a  rural  com- 
munity may  entirely  transform  it.  It  may  also  be 
greatly  changed  if  it  has  natural  advantages  and  means 
of  communication  fitting  it  for  a  summer  resort. 

In  the  case  of  a  city,  natural  geographical  conditions 
have  much  to  do  with  the  location  and  early  character 
of  the  community,  yet  its  later  history  and  character 
may  be  more  completely  determined  by  the  people  who 
live  there  and  the  artificial  conditions  which  they  have 
produced.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  man- 
made  conditions  affecting  the  life  of  the  community  are 
the  railroads,  the  factories,  the  streets,  and  the  general 
housing  conditions. 

Population.  In  studying  a  community  as  much  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  general  character  of  the 
population  as  to  the  purely  geographical  facts.  The 
statistics  as  to  number  of  people  of  each  sex  in  the 
community,  their  nationality,  the  size  of  families,  pro- 
portion of  wage-earners  and  of  literacy  should  be  looked 
up.  A  general  view  of  the  dominant  occupations  and 
the  social  classes  into  which  the  people  are  divided  is 
also  valuable.  If  there  are  many  nationalities  repre- 
sented, this  will  mean  a  very  complex  study.  If  those 
of  the  same  nationality  live  in  the  same  section,  as  is 
often  the  case,  there  wiU  be  a  number  of  very  distinct 
communities  each  with  its  peculiar  problems.  If  the 
various  nationalities  are  mingled  in  their  place  of  liv- 
ing, most  of  them  not  citizens,  and  many  of  them  single 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  221 

men  and  only  temporary  residents,  then  little  can  be 
gained  for  social  purposes  by  making  a  detailed  study. 
The  permanent  residents  who  direct  the  activities  and 
carry  on  the  public  work  of  the  community  are  the 
ones  that  should  receive  most  attention. 

Where  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  is  of 
foreign  birth,  but  many  are  permanent  residents  and 
citizens,  they  usually  retain  many  customs  and  organiza- 
tions of  their  native  countries  while  gradually  adopting 
those  of  the  new.  Each  quarter  is  usually  receiving 
fresh  immigrants  who  learn  from  their  countrymen  of 
the  new-world  customs,  institutions,  and  laws.  It  is 
very  important,  therefore,  that  each  center  of  foreign 
population  shotild  learn  of  the  best  of  American  life. 
The  schools  are  important  influences  in  this  direction, 
but  means  should  be  used  to  inform  the  older  people, 
soon  after  they  come,  regarding  our  country  and  its  in- 
stitutions. On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  recognized 
that  they  bring  with  them  some  customs  and  institu- 
tions as  good  or  better  than  our  own.  Instead  of  being 
ridiculed,  some  of  these  should  be  commended  and  in 
part  incorporated  into  the  new  life. 

A  study  of  the  population  will  quickly  show  whether 
it  is  fairly  homogeneous  or  one  in  which  there  are  dis- 
tinct classes  which  differ  greatly.  The  important  thing 
to  notice  is  whether  they  have  any  common  interests  and 
whether  there  are  institutions  by  means  of  which  they 
cooperate.  In  residential  sections  the  people  are  often 
of  the  same  general  grade,  but  in  suburban  districts 
especially,  there  may  be  few  common  interests  and  no 
organizations  for  associated  action.  In  other  sections, 
on  the  contrary,  there  may  be  a  diversity  of  nationali- 
ties, but  common  interests,  and  some  institutions,  such 


22B  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

as  a  trade  union,  that  bring  all  of  them  into  close  re- 
lation. 

The  age  of  a  community  and  its  previous  history 
must  often  be  considered  in  order  to  make  an  intelli- 
gent survey  and  interpretation  of  the  community  life. 
In  an  old  community  much  depends  upon  traditions, 
long-established  institutions,  and  the  way  in  which  vari- 
ous classes  and  cliques  have  worked  together  or  against 
each  other.  Unfortunately  in  many  communities  there 
is  much  fault-finding  and  jealousy  which  interfere  with 
public  movements,  while  in  others  there  is  a  consider- 
able amount  of  civic  pride  —  a  very  desirable  thing  if 
it  is  a  pride  in  progressive  activities,  a  serious  handi- 
cap if  it  is  merely  a  pride  in  the  past  which  prevents 
improvement. 

In  a  new  city  its  leaders  are  the  most  important  ele- 
ment of  the  population.  They  have  the  real  qualities 
of  leadership  instead  of  holding  the  position  merely 
because  of  wealth  or  family,  as  is  often  the  case  in  an 
older  community.  They  start  movements  and  establish 
institutions  unhampered  by  traditions  and  clan  feel- 
ings. In  older  communities  leaders  with  initiative  must 
often  oppose  old  customs  and  prejudices  supported  by 
men  who  have  wealth  and  position,  and  they  may  give 
up  the  struggle  or  emigrate  to  a  newer  country.  The 
work'  of  leaders  in  every  community  is  of  significance 
to  social  students.  In  new  communities  the  leaders  of 
the  day  have  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  present 
and  future  life  and  institutions,  while  in  older  commu- 
nities it  is  often  more  important  to  know  of  the  work 
of  a  leader  long  since  dead. 

Housing.  No  factor  in  city  life  is  more  important 
than  its  housing  conditions.    It  is  a  permanent  influ- 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  223 

ence  continually  acting  upon  every  individual  and  upon 
the  most  important  of  aU  groups,  the  family.  The  city 
that  has  the  best  housing  conditions  for  all  its  dwellers 
may  be  regarded  as  the  one  that  has  most  completely 
adapted  its  environment  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  large 
number  of  civilized  people  in  a  limited  space.  Good 
housing  conditions  represent  the  most  complete  adjust- 
ment of  all  the  social  activities  of  the  community  for 
the  advantage  of  all.  It  is  only  possible  where  all  able- 
bodied  workers  receive  adequate  pay,  where  the  streets 
are  properly  laid  out  and  cared  for,  where  building  opera- 
tions are  intelligently  carried  on,  where  business  and 
residence  districts  are  properly  arranged  with  reference 
to  each  other  and  to  recreational  and  cultural  centers, 
and  where  there  are  efficiently  planned  and  managed 
water,  sewer,  fire,  lighting,  and  health  departments. 

The  housing  conditions  are  the  best  index  of  suc- 
cessful commimity  life  because  they  are  so  intimately 
related  to  every  phase  of  community  activity  both  as  a 
cause  and  as  an  effect.  Every  improvement  in  housing 
conditions  makes  possible  further  improvement  in  the 
community,  while  every  other  improvement  in  any  phase 
of  commimity  life  has  its  effect  sooner  or  later  upon 
housing  conditions.  This  is  well  shown  by  the  changes 
in  certain  sections  of  large  cities.  Very  unattractive 
houses  may  be  occupied  by  foreigners  when  they  first 
come  to  this  country,  but  as  soon  as  their  financial 
affairs  improve  they  learn  something  of  the  advantages 
of  better  home  conditions.  They  ^ist  improve  their 
house  furnishings,  then  they  demand  improvement  in 
the  house,  and  often  they  move  to  another  section  of 
the  city  where  better  housing  is  provided.  Their  places 
are  taken  by  another  class  of  foreigners  who  are  poor 


224  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

and  ignorant.  In  any  city  where  all  classes  have  im- 
proved financially  and  intellectually,  no  one  can  be  in- 
duced to  occupy  houses  that  are  not  favorable  to  health- 
ful and  happy  home  life.  To  bring  this  condition  about 
should,  of  course,  be  the  aim  of  every  city. 

Much  may  be  learned  of  the  housing  conditions  in  a 
city  and  in  its  different  sections  by  passing  along  the 
streets,  noting  how  close  the  houses  are  together,  and 
whether  any  are  in  the  rear  of  others  or  facing  on  an 
alley,  the  size  and  general  aspect  of  the  houses,  the 
appearance  of  the  people,  and  the  number  of  children 
in  the  streets.  The  census  report  gives  the  number  of 
persons  per  building,  and  this  is  some  indication  of  the 
housing  conditions.  If  the  number  in  the  community 
being  studied  is  larger,  as  compared  with  the  area,  than 
the  average,  it  means  one  of  two  things,  large  tene- 
ments or  small  buildings  overcrowded,  or  possibly  both. 
The  best  numerical  expression  of  a  crowded  condition 
or  the  absence  of  it  is  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  per- 
sons to  the  number  of  rooms  in  the  city  or  in  certain 
sections  of  the  city.  Another  is  the  number  of  rooms 
per  family,  but  this  is  not  so  significant  if  boarders 
are  also  found  in  many  of  the  tenements.  Although 
many  persons  in  a  few  rooms  constitute  the  most  sig- 
nificant indication  of  bad  housing  conditions,  yet  the 
size  of  the  rooms,  the  window  space,  and  the  sewer, 
water,  and  toilet  facilities  are  in  themselves  more  im- 
portant than  the  mere  fact  of  many  people  in  a  given 
space.  Other  significant  factors  are  narrow  streets  or 
the  absence  of  other  open  spaces,  the  proximity  to  noisy, 
dirty,  or  evil-smelling  factories,  too  great  distance  from 
market,  recreation,  and  cultural  opportunities,  or  insuf- 
ficient means  of  transportation. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  226 

It  may  be  said  that  the  character  of  the  people  is  the 
more  important  factor  determining  how  clean,  health- 
ful, and  attractive  the  home  shall  be.  Theoretically  this 
is  true,  but  with  very  few  and  usually  temporary  ex- 
ceptions the  people  match  their  surroundings.  People 
partly  choose  and  partly  make  their  environment,  and 
hence  they  must,  in  the  long  run,  correspond.  Those 
who  like  clean,  pleasant  surroundings  will  have  them 
even  if  they  must  pay  a  higher  rent  and  do  with  less 
desirable  food  and  clothing.  Those  who  do  not  care  for 
them  will  live  in  squalor  and  save  money.  If  people  of 
neat  habits  are  absolutely  compelled  by  poverty  to  live 
in  dirty  and  unsanitary  surroundings,  they  improve 
their  financial  condition  after  a  time  and  move,  or  they 
gradually  become  less  and  less  particular,  and  finally 
descend  to  the  level  of  their  neighbors. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  persons  who  have  lived  in 
crowded,  dirty  sections  move  into  a  section  where  there 
is  space  and  cleanliness,  they  will  usually  soon  improve 
their  own  habits  of  living  until  they  approach  those  of 
their  new  neighbors.  If,  however,  a  whole  neighbor- 
hood is  given  better  living  conditions,  but  no  teaching 
or  example  of  clean,  sanitary  living,  the  change  in  msr 
terial  environment  which  has  not  been  asked  for  or 
produced  by  themselves  will  not  greatly  modify  the 
people.  Instead  they  will  modify  the  environment  until 
the  well-built  tenement  is  almost  as  unattractive  as  the 
old  one  previously  occupied.  Transformation  in  a  neigh- 
borhood is  usually  best  brought  about  gradually  by 
constructing  a  few  good  houses  and  having  them  occu- 
pied by  those  who  will  keep  them  attractive,  until  the 
whole  community  is  transformed  materially  and  spirit- 
ually.   A  clean-up  campaign  for  the  yards  and  streets, 


226  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

some  renovation  of  the  buildings,  and  regular  garbage 
and  rubbish  collections  may  also  greatly  improve  the 
living  conditions  in  certain  sections  of  the  city. 

It  may  be  admitted  that  people  are  more  important 
than  their  material  surroimdings,  but  in  cities,  where 
the  surroundings  are  almost  whoUy  man-made,  there  is 
an  inevitable  tendency  for  them  to  become  adapted  to 
each  other.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  a  study  of  the 
housing  conditions  in  any  section  furnishes  a  good  index 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  people  inhabiting  it.  The 
longer  they  have  lived  in  the  same  surroundings,  the 
more  completely  is  this  true.  Improvement  is  most 
rapid  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  change  both  people 
and  surroundings  at  the  same  time,  especially  by  in- 
citing the  desire  to  change  and  providing  facilities  for 
improvement. 

To  produce  good  housing  conditions  at  a  low  cost 
is  very  difficult,  so  difficult  that  much  cooperation  of 
many  people,  perhaps  backed  by  political  action,  is  nec- 
essary. The  best  results  have  been  reached  where  archi- 
tects and  builders  have  cooperated  with  individuals  and 
building  associations  and  have  observed  public  regula- 
tions regarding  streets  and  buildings  in  constructing 
large  numbers  of  houses  of  a  few  types  suited  to  the 
size,  income,  and  tastes  of  typical  families  who  were 
likely  to  reside  in  that  section.  In  this  way  good  living 
conditions  have  been  produced  in  some  cities  at  about 
half  the  cost  of  planning  and  building  as  an  individual 
affair. 

A  study  of  housing  conditions  should  show  not  only 
how  bad  or  good  they  are,  but  also  just  why  they  are 
bad  in  any  respect  in  order  that  it  may  be  known  how 
to  improve  them.  Sometimes  the  way  in  which  the  city 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  227 

has  been  laid  out  or  its  geographical  situation  is  respon- 
sible, and  the  remedy  may  be  obvious  but  costly.  If 
the  streets  are  wide  and  far  apart,  houses  may  have 
been  built  on  alleys  and  on  the  backs  of  lots,  as  is  the 
case  in  Washington.  In  some  cases  rear  houses  are  be- 
ing torn  down  and  in  others  alleys  are  transformed  into 
streets.  If  building  laws  prevent  the  erection  of  houses 
on  the  rear  of  lots,  then  there  may  be  much  land  with 
each  house.  This  is  desirable,  but  adds  to  the  cost  of 
housing  unless  tall  tenements  are  erected.  If  streets 
are  wide,  this  is  less  objectionable  than  if  they  are  nar- 
row, but  wide  streets  are  a  costly  form  of  open  space 
to  construct  and  maintain.  They  also  decrease  the 
amount  of  taxable  property  in  the  city,  and  when  they 
occupy,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  almost  one  haK  of  the 
entire  city  area,  it  is  evident  that  they  must  be  very 
costly  and  housing  expenses  unusually  great.  Where 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  city  from  spreading  out, 
it  is  better  for  residence  districts  to  have  narrow  streets, 
low  houses,  and  open  spaces  in  the  form  of  yards,  parks, 
and  playgrounds.  These  are  much  cheaper  to  maintain 
than  streets  and  more  valuable  for  residents.  Broad 
streets  are  needed  only  where  there  are  tall  buildings 
or  much  travel,  as  is  usual  in  business  sections.  A  city 
that  is  spread  over  a  large  area  will  have  more  taxable 
pi-operty  than  one  of  the  same  population  that  is  con- 
centrated on  a  small  space,  and  the  living  conditions 
will  be  much  better.  In  the  latter  case  the  transporta- 
tion problem  is  more  difficult  unless  the  inhabitants  are 
so  grouped  in  relation  to  their  work  and  to  recreational 
and  other  facilities  that  they  do  not  often  need  to  go 
long  distances. 

In  some  cases  the  remedy  for  bad  housing  conditions 


S28  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

18  to  be  found  in  better  water  and  sewer  facilities,  or 
in  better  and  more  strict  enforcement  of  regulations 
regarding  the  construction  of  buildings. 

In  many  cases  people  coming  from  rural  districts, 
where  conditions  are  very  different,  or  from  foreign 
lands,  do  not  know  how  to  make  the  best  of  their  sur- 
roundings even  when  they  are  fairly  good,  and  they  need 
to  be  shown  how  their  dwellings  may  be  made  more 
healthful  and  attractive  and  to  have  their  tastes  in  this 
direction  cultivated.  Sometimes  it  may  be  found  that 
so  many  of  the  family  are  working  long  hours  that  they 
have  not  time  or  energy  to  make  their  dwellings  clean 
and  attractive.  It  may  be  discovered  that  wages  or 
employment  are  so  irregular  that  overcrowding  is  an 
absolute  necessity.  In  such  cases  the  remedy  is  entirely 
economic. 

Sometimes  foreigners  greatly  overcrowd  partly  be- 
cause they  are  used  to  it  in  the  countries  from  which 
they  come  (often  from  rural  districts  where  it  is  less 
objectionable)  and  partly  because  they  are  willing  to 
live  in  such  conditions  in  order  to  save  money.  This  is 
more  often  the  case  where  many  families  take  boarders. 
These  are  difficult  cases  to  deal  with.  So  far  as  the 
individual  families  are  concerned,  however,  it  is  often 
temporary,  for  when  they  have  saved  enough  money 
they  frequently  either  go  back  to  their  native  country 
or  cease  to  keep  boarders  and  perhaps  buy  a  home  of 
their  own.  If  societies  were  formed  for  supplying  good 
boarding  conditions  at  a  reasonable  price,  some  of  the 
overcrowding  of  boarders  in  private  families  might  be 
prevented. 

In  considering  general  housing  conditions,  the  rank 
.of  the  community  in  question  as  compared  with  others 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  229 

may  be  determined  by  a  comparison  of  the  rent  paid 
to  income  received  by  different  classes  of  people.  The 
amount  spent  on  rent  varies  in  different  cities  and  for 
different  classes  from  about  one  sixth  to  about  one 
third  of  the  total  family  expenditure.  Those  with  a 
moderate  income  are  likely  to  spend  more  in  proportion 
on  rent,  whUe  the  proportion  spent  for  food  is  highest 
among  the  very  poor. 

The  cost  of  rent  per  room  is  another  form  of  statis- 
tics that  may  be  used  in  a  comparison  of  the  purely 
economic  phase  of  housing  conditions  in  different  cities 
and  in  the  same  city  at  different  times.  There  is  usually, 
of  course,  a  pretty  close  correspondence  between  the 
cost  of  rent  and  the  value  of  residences. 

Institutions.  In  a  general  survey  the  part  that  its 
various  institutions  play  in  the  life  of  the  community 
as  a  whole  should  be  considered.  Very  frequently  a 
society  organized  for  a  special  purpose  may  enlist  many 
members  and  incidently  increase  the  variety  of  its  activ- 
ities, until  it  is  more  influential  in  several  lines  than 
are  other  societies  organized  for  those  special  forms  of 
work.  A  church,  a  school,  a  woman's  club,  a  board  of 
trade,  a  lodge  of  some  kind,  or  a  good  government  club, 
a  reading-circle,  a  recreative  club,  a  Y.M.C.A.,  or  a 
social  settlement  may  be  the  most  efficient  means  of 
association  and  common  action  that  there  is  in  the  com- 
munity. These  various  societies,  as  weU  as  the  local 
government  and  its  administration,  will  naturally  re- 
ceive attention  in  studying  the  ways  in  which  the  sev- 
eral social  needs  are  met,  but  they  should  be  considered 
with  reference  to  the  whole  life  of  the  community  as 
well  as  from  the  point  of  view  of  special  needs  and  ac- 
tivities. 


230  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Statistics  may  be  collected  as  to  the  number,  mem- 
bership, and  lines  of  activity  of  societies  of  all  kinds, 
and  these  compared  with  others  gathered  in  similar 
communities.  It  will  be  found  usually  that  on  the  aver- 
age each  person  is  a  member  of  several  societies,  and 
yet  in  every  community  there  are  probably  some  adults 
who  belong  to  no  society,  while  others  belong  to  a  score 
or  more. 

One  important  thing  to  note  in  studying  the  socie- 
ties of  a  community  is  this.  What  societies  are  for  spe- 
cial classes  of  people  and  which  bring  together  many 
different  classes  ?  What  is  the  value  of  these  different 
institutions  in  the  life  of  the  community?  In  some 
places  there  are  many  organizations  for  special  classes 
and  interests,  but  not  one  representing  interests  com- 
mon to  all  and  having  the  support  of  all.  Such  a  com- 
munity is  unfortunate. 

Effects  of  rural  and  urban  life.  The  differences  be- 
tween rural  and  urban  communities,  already  mentioned, 
and  discussed  in  the  following  chapters,  are  modified 
by  their  relations  to  each  other,  and  this  relation  must 
be  considered  in  all  community  studies. 

A  village  with  a  rural  population  surrounding  it  may 
combine  many  of  the  advantageous  characteristics  of 
both  the  urban  and  the  rural  community,  especially 
now  that  good  roads  and  telephones  are  common.  This 
is  nearly  always  the  case  when  the  village  is  under  the 
same  government  as  the  surrounding  country  and  is 
the  center  of  the  economic,  social,  recreational,  cultural, 
religious,  and  educational  life  of  the  people.  If  the 
people  are  sufficiently  alike,  there  may  be  a  happy 
blending  of  personal  association  and  institutional  ac- 
tivity that  yields  the  fullest  community  life. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  231 

In  many  instances,  however,  the  relations  are  less 
fortunate.  The  people  of  town  and  country  are  not 
similar,  or  unified  in  their  interests.  The  effects  are  usu- 
ally worst  upon  the  rural  population,  especially  when 
it  cx)nsists  largely  of  temporary  tenants.  In  nearly 
every  case  the  rural  community  loses  its  distinctive 
advantages  of  family  and  neighborly  life  before  it  gains 
those  of  urban  institutional  life.  This  is  especially 
true  with  regard  to  recreation  and  culture.  Discontent 
among  country  people,  especially  of  the  younger  gen- 
eration, is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  they  must  go  to 
town  for  recreation,  while  rural  life  supplies  only  hard 
work.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  there  has 
been  such  an  increase  of  city  population  and  in  many 
cases  a  decrease  in  the  strictly  rural  districts.  Not  only 
do  the  young  people  go  to  the  city,  but  well-to-do  farm- 
ers rent  their  land  and  move  to  town  where  they  and 
their  children  have  more  cultural  advantages.  Under 
such  conditions  the  community  life,  instead  of  improv- 
ing, degenerates.  In  thickly  settled  rural  districts  such 
degeneration  may  be  prevented  by  getting  the  people 
to  provide  themselves  with  recreational  and  cultural 
facilities. 

The  effect  upon  city  dwellers  of  taking  vacations  in 
the  country  is  to  attract  them  to  it.  There  is,  there- 
fore, a  double  movement  from  city  and  country  to  sub- 
urban sections.  The  people  of  these  suburban  districts 
may  or  may  not  become  unified  as  a  community  and 
act  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  advantages  of  both 
city  and  rural  life.  Sometimes  they  merely  live  in  the 
country  for  the  sake  of  its  natural  advantages  and  go 
to  the  city  for  the  artificial  advantages  of  specialized 
institutional  life. 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 


EXERCISES 

1.  Discuss  the  possible  future  of  the  profession  of  social 
engineer. 

2.  Each  student  should  make  at  least  a  general  or  partial 
survey  of  some  community. 

3.  Standards  of  comparison  that  may  be  used  in  survey 
work  should  be  studied  and  reported  upon. 

4.  Look  up  and  report  upon  the  development  of  the  city- 
planning  movement. 

5.  Discuss  the  question  of  how  to  secure  the  cooperation 
of  all  classes  in  making  a  community  survey. 

6.  Describe  two  communities,  one  in  which  natural  geo- 
graphical advantages  seem  to  dominate  and  another  in 
which  the  character  of  the  people  seems  to  give  it  its 
distinctive  character. 

7.  Beport  on  social  settlements  or  other  means  of  develop- 
ing community  life  and  of  educating  foreign  people. 

8.  Have  all  students  report  their  observations  on  the 
housing  conditions  in  the  immediate  locality  in  which 
they  are  living  and  that  of  some  contrasting  locality 
that  they  visit.  After  a  few  reports  and  some  discussion 
a  general  outline  should  be  agreed  upon  to  be  followed 
by  all  in  a  more  complete  study  of  the  problem. 

9.  Have  each  student  report  upon  the  institution  in  his 
home  community  that  he  thinks  has  the  most  influence 
upon  the  community  life  as  a  whole. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

COMMUNITY  STUDIES  — ECONOMIC  AND  PROTECTIVE 

Economic  conditions  and  public  finances.  The  eco- 
nomic condition  of  a  community  should  be  carefully 
studied  whatever  the  purpose  of  the  social  survey.  In 
every  case  the  conditions  and  possibility  of  improve- 
ment in  any  phase  of  community  life  depend  directly 
or  indirectly  upon  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole  and  upon  the  extent  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  this  prosperity  among  all  classes. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  easily  obtained  facts 
with  regard  to  the  economic  condition  of  the  commu- 
nity is  the  average  amount  of  taxable  property  possessed 
by  its  inhabitants.  It  is  true  that  the  assessed  value  of 
property  does  not  in  every  case  correspond  closely  to 
the  actual  value.  It  may  represent  in  different  com- 
munities anywhere  from  thirty  to  a  hundred  per  cent 
of  the  real  value,  but  it  is  the  best  estimate  available, 
and  in  every  community  the  valuation  made  by  the 
assessors  for  taxation  determines  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent the  amount  that  can  be  expended  for  public  pur- 
poses. The  average  valuation  per  person  in  the  United 
States  is  about  thirteen  hundred  dollars,  but  even  in 
the  same  states  it  is  ten  times  as  much  in  some  com- 
munities as  it  is  in  others.  Usually  it  is  greater  in  cities 
than  in  rural  sections.  In  a  community  with  a  very 
small  valuation  it  is  evident  that  only  a  small  amount 
of  money  can  be  expended  for  public  purposes,  such  as 
roads,  bridges,  schools,  etc. 


234  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Although  the  amount  of  assessable  property  in  a 
community  is  the  basis  for  determining  the  expenditure 
for  public  expenses,  it  is  not  an  accurate  measure  of 
economic  prosperity  and  of  the  amount  that  may  be 
used  without  hardship  for  community  purposes.  The 
amount  of  property  in  a  community  is  sometimes  an 
indication  of  past  rather  than  of  present  prosperity.  In 
a  new  community  property  valuation  may  be  low,  but 
annual  income  large,  while  in  an  old  community  prop- 
erty valuation  is  sometimes  large,  but  income  small. 
This  is  true  if  in  the  newer  community  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  are  engaged  in  productive  work, 
while  in  the  older  a  large  number  are  unproductive 
and  are  living  upon  the  income  of  past  accumulations. 
In  communities  of  the  former  type  a  tax  rate  twice 
as  high  as  in  the  older  community  might  be  levied 
without  placing  any  greater  burden  upon  the  people. 
In  the  new,  enough  may  be  raised  for  public  purposes 
even  though  the  property  valuation  is  below  the  aver- 
age, because  the  people  can  afford  to  pay  a  higher  rate 
of  taxes. 

It  is  important  to  know  in  every  community  not 
merely  the  average  valuation  of  property  and  the  aver- 
age income  per  person,  but  how  this  property  and  in- 
come are  distributed.  A  community  having  a  few  very 
wealthy  persons  may  rank  as  high  in  average  wealth 
and  income  and  yet  be  an  entirely  different  sort  of  a 
community,  economically  and  otherwise,  from  one  of 
equal  valuation  and  income  in  which  there  are  no  very 
wealthy  individuals.  The  first  community  would  be 
one  in  which  there  were  great  numbers  of  poor  people, 
while  in  the  second  there  would  be  little  if  any  extreme 
poverty.    The  economic  condition  of  the  community 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  235 

might  probably  be  best  indicated  by  classifying  its 
population  in  groups  according  to  valuation  of  prop- 
erty or  income  per  year  and  finding  what  groups  are 
largest.  In  most  cases  in  a  democratic  country  we 
wovdd  regard  the  community  having  very  few  wealthy 
and  very  few  poor  people  as  being  in  a  better  condi- 
tion for  the  development  of  various  forms  of  social  life, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  a  long  course  of  years  it 
is  more  efficient  and  productive. 

It  is  not  only  important  to  know  how  much  money 
is  available  in  any  community  for  public  use,  but  also 
to  know  how  much  is  needed  in  that  particular  com- 
munity. In  a  city  a  great  deal  must  be  expended  upon 
streets  and  sewers,  the  amount  depending  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the 
way  the  city  is  laid  out,  while  in  rural  districts  com- 
paratively little  will  be  thus  expended  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  highways.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a 
very  sparsely  settled  rural  community,  the  comparative 
expense  of  providing  adequate  school  facilities  will  be 
very  great. 

A  very  important  question  in  every  community  is 
that  of  how  the  public  money  is  being  expended. 
Affairs  are  best  managed,  not  in  the  community  that 
is  most  economical  or  the  one  which  is  most  liberal  in 
its  expenditure  of  public  money,  but  in  the  one  that 
gets  the  most  for  its  money  in  the  way  of  public  ad- 
vantages for  all  classes  of  persons.  Citizens  generally 
have  been  interested  in  the  amount  expended  for  vari- 
ous purposes,  but  with  the  varied  and  often  complex 
forms  of  bookkeeping  and  financial  reporting  it  has 
been  impossible  for  the  average  citizen  to  know  just 
how  advantageously  public  money  has  been  spent. 


236  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

One  of  the  principal  things  needed  at  the  present 
time  is  more  uniformity  and  simplicity  of  bookkeeping 
and  clearer  statements  regarding  financial  affairs,  so 
that  every  citizen  shall  know  just  how  the  public  money 
is  being  used  and  how  much  any  improvement  or  addi- 
tion to  public  conveniences  will  cost.  Simplified  finan- 
cial statements  and  publicity  regarding  the  financial 
expenditure  of  the  community,  and  the  strict  account- 
ability of  each  o£Bcial  in  charge  are  most  important 
means  of  civic  improvement. 

Economic  resources  and  activities.  The  natural  re- 
sources, especially  in  a  rural  section,  should  receive 
careful  attention.  Climate,  soil,  minerals,  water-power, 
and  natural  means  of  communication  with  other  places 
are  always  to  be  studied  to  see  how  they  compare  with 
the  same  advantages  in  other  sections  and  how  fully 
they  are  being  utilized.  In  addition,  other  advantages, 
such  as  beautiful  scenery  or  abundance  of  fish,  may  in 
some  places  be  important  economic  assets. 

In  farming  communities  the  proportion  of  cultivated 
land  to  the  whole  area,  the  number  and  size  of  the 
farms,  the  value  of  the  land  and  improvements,  and  the 
amount  and  value  of  the  yearly  products,  the  number 
of  farms  free  from  mortgages,  etc.,  should  be  deter- 
mined and  compared  with  census  reports  of  the  state 
and  the  United  States.  If  a  large  proportion  of  the 
farms  are  operated  by  owners,  this  almost  surely  means 
permanence  of  residence  and  a  better  developed  com- 
munity life. 

The  artificial  resources,  such  as  roads,  machinery, 
and  working  capital,  and  institutions,  such  as  banks 
and  produce  associations,  should  be  studied.  Deter- 
mine whether  the  natural  facilities  for  making  good 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  237 

roads  are  utilized  or  neglected.  Machinery  ma,y  or  may 
not  be  used  as  much  as  it  should  be  considering  the 
soil  and  the  crops.  Lack  of  sufficient  capital  and  a  bad 
credit  system  may  make  it  difficult  or  impossible  for 
the  farmer  to  procure  proper  machinery,  stock,  seed,  or 
help.  The  market  conditions  may  be  poor  because  there 
is  no  near  market  and  because  there  is  not  enough  of 
each  kind  of  crop  to  make  shipping  to  distant  markets 
feasible.  This  often  results  in  there  being  only  one  or 
two  principal  cash  crops  and  a  consequent  lack  of  suit- 
able variety  and  rotation  of  crops  to  keep  the  soil  in 
good  condition.  This  difficulty  may  sometimes  be  rem- 
edied by  means  of  an  organization  which  arranges  for 
the  grading  and  marketing  of  the  products  of  many 
farms,  which  could  not  be  shipped  and  sold  profitably 
in  small  lots.  In  newer  sections  of  our  country  the 
land  is  often  productive  but  capital  scarce,  interest 
high  and  markets  uncertain,  while  in  older  sections  this 
is  less  likely  to  be  the  case. 

Much  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  people.  If 
they  are  industrious  and  intelligent,  much  work  is  done, 
they  raise  crops  suited  to  the  region,  and  learn  to  co- 
operate in  getting  credit  and  market  facilities. 

In  urban  sections  the  most  significant  economic  facts 
do  not  concern  natural  resources  so  much  as  they  do 
artificial  assets,  the  railway  and  water  facilities  and  the 
factories  in  an  industrial  town,  the  business  houses  in 
a  commercial  center,  and  the  housing  and  living  con- 
ditions in  a  residential  suburb.  These  mean  that  there 
is  more  or  less  capital  in  the  place  to  facilitate  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  articles  of  value  and  make 
living  conditions  comfortable. 

The  character  of  the  community  where  there  is  only 


238  FCNDAMENTALS  OP  SOCIOLOGY 

one  dominant  industry  will  differ  greatly  from  that  of 
a  place  where  there  are  many.  If  there  is  only  one  in- 
dustry, the  people  are  usually  divided  into  a  few  dis- 
tinct classes  and  prosperity  varies  from  year  to  year, 
while  if  there  are  many  industries  the  classes  are  not 
commonly  so  distinctly  separate  and  prosperity  is  usu- 
ally more  evenly  distributed. 

One  index  of  economic  prosperity  is  the  value  of  the 
manufactured  products  and  the  amount  of  business  done 
by  commercial  houses.  This  is  often  indicated  in  a  gen- 
eral way  by  the  bank  clearings,  also  by  the  number  and 
financial  condition  of  the  banks. 

The  prosperity  of  the  common  people  is  indicated 
by  the  deposits  in  savings  banks  and  also  by  the 
amount  of  business  done  by  cooperative  banks  or  build- 
ing and  loan  associations.  The  wealth-producing  activ- 
ity of  the  conmmnity  as  a  whole  is  measured  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  the  percentage  of  the  population 
engaged  in  economic  production  and  their  average  in- 
come. A  city  of  little  wealth  in  which  workers  are 
numerous  and  wages  high  may,  therefore,  be  much 
more  prosperous  than  a  city  with  much  wealth  but  few 
active  producers.  The  industry  and  intelligence  of 
workers  are  a  city's  greatest  assets  if  there  is  material 
and  institutional  provision  for  their  effective  employ- 
ment in  economic  activities. 

The  city  needs  not  only  a  sufficient  number  of  fac- 
tories and  business  houses  suited  to  the  city  and  its 
trade  with  surrounding  places,  but  good  banks,  favor- 
able means  of  transportation,  an  active  board  of  trade, 
and  conditions  favorable  for  keeping  workers  profitably 
employed,  healthy  and  contented,  and  economically  and 
politically  interested  in  their  home  community. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  239 

The  more  people  invest  their  money  and  spend  for 
necessities,  pleasures,  and  culture  at  home,  the  more 
prosperous  will  all  classes  of  the  community  be.  In- 
crease in  wages,  then,  increases  the  prosperity  of  the 
stores,  the  banks,  the  insurance  companies,  the  build- 
ing trades,  the  theaters,  the  churches,  and  the  schools. 
More  desirable  people  come  to  the  place  and  remain, 
more  capital  is  ready  for  use,  and  more  efficient  work- 
ers are  kept  in  the  city. 

It  is  utterly  impossible  for  a  city  to  be  permanently 
prosperous  if  the  conditions  of  living  are  bad  for  any 
considerable  proportion  of  its  inhabitants.  A  large  slum 
district  means  that  a  large  portion  of  the  economic  re- 
sources of  the  city  is  partially  or  whoUy  non-productive 
and  the  rest  of  the  city  is,  therefore,  less  prosperous 
than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

After  facts  have  been  obtained  concerning  the  con- 
ditions mentioned  above,  conclusions  may  be  drawn  as 
to  what  constitutes  the  greatest  economic  weakness  of 
the  community  and  suggestions  made  as  to  possible  im- 
provements and  how  they  may  be  brought  about. 

Specific  figures  to  be  obtained. 

Assessed  valuation  per  person. 

Value  of  products,  past  year  and  former  years 
(itemized  and  total). 

Amount  of  wholesale  and  retail  business,  past  year 
and  former  years. 

Bank  deposits,  past  year  and  former  years. 

Savings  banks  deposits,  past  year  and  former  years. 

Building  and  loan  business,  past  year  and  former  years. 

Total  working  capital,  past  year  and  former  years. 

Number  and  per  cent  of  population  engaged  in  pro- 
ductive work. 


240  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Average  wages. 

Average  number  of  days  employed. 

Estimated  average  yearly  income  or  number  receiv- 
ing more  or  less  than  certain  amounts,  e.g.,  $500, 
$1000,  $2000,  etc. 

Number  of  persons  receiving  aid,  past  year.  Former 
years. 

Amount  expended  for  aid,  past  year.  Former  years. 

Cost  of  each  department  of  the  city,  past  year. 
Former  years. 

Per  cent  of  total  spent  by  each  department  of  the  city, 
past  year.  Former  years. 

Salary  of  chief  officials,  past  year.  Former  years. 

Wages  of  municipal  employees,  past  year.  Former 
years. 

Value  of  new  buildings  erected. 

Amount  of  public  money  expended. 

Tax-rate. 

Public  debt. 

Miles  of  roads. 

Miles  of  macadamized  roads. 

Protection  against  crime  and  injustice.  Protection 
against  personal  assault  and  property  loss  through  the 
acts  of  others  is  in  all  civilized  countries  provided  by 
governmental  rather  than  private  institutions,  although 
sometimes  law  and  order  leagues  are  organized  for  this 
purpose,  mobs  are  temporarily  formed  to  punish  crim- 
inals, or  corporations  employ  a  detective  agency  to  help 
preserve  their  property  at  the  time  of  a  strike.  The  use 
of  any  such  protective  means  indicates  that  the  govern- 
ment institutions  are  not  doing  their  work  effectively. 
There  is  reason  also  for  saying  that  where  there  is  effi- 
cient government  and  conditions  of  life  in  a  community 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  241 

are  good,  there  should  be  little  need  for  individuals  to 
seek  to  protect  themselves  by  locks,  bars,  and  revolvers. 

Such  institutions  as  those  insuring  against  burglary 
or  theft  are  not  necessarily  a  reflection  on  local  govern- 
ment, since  persons  committing  such  acts  rarely  confine 
themselves  to  one  community,  yet  they  mean  that  pro- 
tection by  law  is  inefficient. 

There  is  no  reliable  index  of  the  effectiveness  of  pro- 
tective institutions.  A  small  amount  of  crime  in  a  com- 
munity may  be  due  to  effective  governmental  protection 
or  to  the  good  character  of  the  people  and  the  favorable 
conditions  under  which  all  live.  Few  arrests  may  indi- 
cate either  an  inactive  government  or  little  crime,  while 
many  arrests  may  mean  an  active  government,  but  un- 
favorable conditions  or  lawless  people.  Again,  it  may 
mean  that  many  new  and  unfamiliar  regulations,  such 
as  those  relating  to  spitting  on  the  sidewalk  or  fast 
driving,  have  been  made  and  are  being  enforced.  For 
these  reasons  statistics  of  crime  are  difficult  of  inter- 
pretation. They  should,  however,  be  collected  and  clas- 
sified in  such  a  way  as  to  make  some  interpretation 
possible.  The  proportion  of  convictions  to  arrests,  and 
the  time  elapsing  before  verdicts  are  rendered,  are  im- 
portant indications  of  the  activity  and  efficiency  of  po- 
lice and  judicial  departments. 

Court  procedure,  especially  for  juveniles,  should  be 
carefully  studied.  The  prisons  and  the  work  of  proba- 
tion officers  should  also  receive  attention.  Besides  the 
protection  afforded  normal  people  under  normal  condi- 
tions a  study  should  be  made  of  the  provision  made  for 
the  weak  and  defective  and  those  who  are  temporarily 
unable  to  care  for  themselves.  This  means  a  study  of 
the  institutions  for  charitable  and  hospital  care,  and  may 


242  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

also  include  an  investigation  of  the  laws  and  societies 
concerned  in  protecting  persons  with  little  knowledge 
and  money  from  the  impositions  of  loan  sharks  and 
swindlers  of  various  sorts. 

Children  form  the  largest  group  of  persons  needing 
protective  care ;  hence,  in  every  community  public  pro- 
vision is  made  and  often  special  societies  exist  for  guard- 
ing them  from  physical  and  moral  injury  of  various 
kinds.  These  need  to  be  carefully  studied,  especially  in 
cities  where  this  function,  properly  belonging  to  the 
family,  is  less  perfectly  fulfilled. 

Protection  against  disease  and  accident.  The  most 
important  protective  institutions  are  those  concerned 
in  providing  and  maintaining  conditions  favorable  to 
health  and  which  attend  to  such  matters  as  sewer  sys- 
tems, water-supply,  garbage-collection,  building  super- 
vision, and  hospital  accommodations.  All  of  these  de- 
partments may  be  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
board  of  health  and  administered  by  public  officials, 
though  in  some  places  these  functions  are  carried  on  by 
private  institutions  or  individuals.  The  facts  for  the 
community  in  question  shoidd  be  ascertained  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  service  estimated. 

The  chief  index  of  health  conditions  is  the  death-rate 
per  thousand,  and  the  nature  of  unfavorable  conditions 
is  suggested  by  the  causes  of  death  and  the  age  at  which 
most  deaths  occur,  as  compared  with  other  places.  Fig- 
ures as  to  sickness,  if  they  can  be  obtained,  are  helpful. 
Much  typhoid  indicates  usually  that  the  water-  and  milk- 
supply  should  be  carefully  examined,  while  a  great  deal 
of  tuberculosis  suggests  bad  housing  conditions,  and 
frequent  accidents  indicate  a  lack  of  proper  protective 
measures  in  the  industries  and  on  the  streets  and  railways. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  243 

Protection  against  fire  is  supposed  to  be  fumished 
chiefly  by  the  fire  department  and  its  efficiency  and 
equipment  should  be  studied,  but  the  character  of 
buildings  and  the  precautions  taken  by  the  inhabitants 
are  more  important.  The  best  index  of  fire  protection 
is  the  amount  of  yearly  destruction  by  fire.  This,  how- 
ever, is  quite  variable.  The  insurance  rate,  which  is 
based  on  permanent  conditions  and  much  past  expe- 
rience, is  usually  a  pretty  good  indication  of  the  safe- 
guards against  fire.  The  surroundings  of  the  city  or  the 
nature  of  its  industries  may  also  determine  whether  the 
fire  risk  is  great  or  small. 

The  amount  of  business  done  by  life  insurance  and 
industrial  accident  and  sickness  insurance  companies 
and  societies  is  a  pretty  good  indication  of  the  activity 
of  individuals  in  protecting  themselves  against  injury 
to  person  and  loss  to  families.  Of  course,  insurance 
merely  distributes  the  amount  of  loss  to  the  world 
among  many  people  and  over  long  periods  of  time  with- 
out actually  making  it  good.  This  distribution  of  losses 
does,  however,  benefit  the  individuals  concerned  and 
indirectly  the  whole  community ;  for  the  insurance  pre- 
mium is  a  known  amount  that  can  be  provided  for 
without  interfering  with  economic  production,  while 
without  insurance  the  disturbances  due  to  sudden  in- 
juries and  losses  are  destructive  to  family  life  and  dis- 
organizing to  the  industry  suffering  loss,  which  perhaps 
throws  workers  out  of  employment  and  so  injures  those 
industries  that  depend  upon  their  patronage. 

Protective  regulation  and  education.  Regtdation  is 
provided  by  state  laws  and  local  ordinances  and  by  the 
rules  adopted  by  the  various  protective  institutions. 
The  laws  are  enforced  by  the  officials  of  the  state  and 


844  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

community,  assisted  by  the  courts  which  impose  pen- 
alties for  violation. 

Another  way  of  bringing  about  the  desired  protec- 
tion is  by  education.  Some  health  officers,  for  example, 
rarely  invoke  the  law,  but  devote  their  energies  to  in- 
forming the  people  of  the  bad  effects  of  certain  prac- 
tices and  to  inducing  them  individually  and  in  groups 
to  cooperate  in  maintaining  sanitary  conditions.  Such 
regulation,  if  successful,  is  more  lasting  and  attained 
at  much  less  cost  than  that  brought  about  by  imposing 
penalties.  The  chief  need  for  penalties  occurs  when  all 
but  a  very  few  can  be  induced  to  comply  with  the  nec- 
essary regulations,  but  where  failure  of  those  few  nulli- 
fies the  action  of  all.  If  a  large  proportion  of  the  people 
are  not  convinced  of  the  desirability  of  a  regulation, 
conformity  can  only  be  brought  about  by  swift  and 
sure  infliction  of  severe  penalties.  In  a  democratic  coun- 
try this  is  impossible,  because  arrests  will  not  be  made 
or  juries  will  not  convict. 

It  may  be  stated  that,  with  few  exceptions,  regula- 
tions made  before  public  opinion  is  educated  to  receive 
them,  must  be  enforced  with  severity  or  fail,  sometimes 
both,  while  education  without  the  possibility  of  using 
force  is  often  rendered  ineffective  by  the  action  of  a 
few.  In  general,  then,  education  only  should  be  used 
where  the  results  cannot  be  vitiated  by  the  few  who  do 
not  conform,  while  in  other  cases  education  should 
be  used  as  far  as  possible  and  force  only  when  neces- 
sary. 

The  study  of  protective  regulation  in  a  local  com- 
munity is  very  much  complicated  by  the  fact  that  many 
of  the  regulations  are  made  by  the  state  and  in  many 
instances  they  are  also  administered  and  enforced  by 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  245 

state  officials.  Sometimes  national  laws  and  officials  are 
also  concerned. 

The  great  problem  of  protective  and  other  regulation 
is  to  find  what  course  of  action  will  bring  about  the 
desired  results,  then,  by  education,  induce  the  people 
to  adopt  this  course  of  action,  and  if  necessary,  for  the 
protection  of  all,  punish  a  few.  Institutions  and  laws 
are  social  inventions  and  the  public  officials  and  the 
officers  of  societies  are  the  operators  of  these  social 
machines.  Sometimes  the  institutions  are  like  automa- 
tic machines  and  officials  have  little  to  do  but  to  follow 
the  rules,  e.g.,  insurance  companies  and  savings  banks. 
In  other  cases  the  official  needs  to  be  a  skilled  artisan 
or  social  engineer  who  can  adapt  the  institution  and  its 
ndes  to  special  conditions  and  secure  the  desired  results 
with  least  cost  in  effort  and  money. 

In  making  a  study  of  protective  conditions  these 
truths  should  be  borne  in  mind.  The  investigator  must 
make  himself  familiar  with  the  institutions  concerned 
and  the  laws,  ordinances,  and  rules  that  have  been 
made,  and  then  he  must  observe  their  administration 
to  see  how  effectively  the  desired  results  are  being 
secured. 

Failure  may  come  through  poorly  devised  organiza- 
tion, or  unwise  rules,  or  through  lack  of  energy,  intel- 
ligence, and  honesty  on  the  part  of  officials.  Too  many 
institutions  and  individuals  may  be  concerned  in  the 
same  matter  without  any  one's  having  full  responsibil- 
ity. This  is  really  an  instance  of  the  class  of  failures 
first  named.  Our  institution  of  municipal  government, 
in  which  there  are  many  aldermen  and  councilmen  and 
numerous  boards,  is  poorly  devised  and  does  not  work 
well,  not  only  because  officials  can  shirk  responsibility, 


246  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

but  because  good  officials  have  not  sufficient  authority 
to  do  what  should  be  done.  For  example,  in  the  case  of 
a  family  of  neglected,  feeble-minded  children  there  may 
be  no  action  because  of  lack  of  cooperation  of  the  sev- 
eral departments  of  charity,  health,  and  police,  no  one 
of  them  taking  the  responsibility. 

The  student  of  social  life  should  seek  first  the  facts 
indicating  that  protection  of  various  kinds  is  effectively 
provided,  then  compare  the  facts  with  those  found  in 
other  places  or  in  the  same  place  at  other  times,  when 
institutions,  laws,  officials,  or  conditions  were  partly  the 
same  and  partly  different.  If  the  institutions  and  laws 
have  been  successful  in  many  places  and  under  various 
conditions,  but  are  not  working  well  in  the  local  com- 
munity, then,  unless  the  conditions  are  very  exceptional, 
the  officials  are  responsible,  and  the  question  is  how  to 
get  better  ones. 

If  the  local  institutions  and  rules  are  the  cause  of 
failure,  the  remedy  is  easier  to  find  than  if  state  laws 
and  institutions  are  involved.  The  student  must  deter- 
mine how  far  remedy  must  be  sought  in  the  direction 
of  new  legislation,  local  or  state,  in  new  organizations, 
in  better  officials,  in  a  campaign  of  education,  or  in 
several  of  these  combined. 

Specific  facts  to  be  obtained. 

Death-rate  per  thousand,  past  year.  Former  years. 

Chief  causes  of  death,  past  year.  Former  years. 

Detailed  facts  regarding  any  departments  that  might 
be  a  means  of  lowering  the  death-rate. 

Number  and  character  of  accidents,  past  year. 
Former  years. 

Number  of  fires,  past  year.  Former  years. 

Loss,  past  year.  Former  years. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  247 

Fire  insurance  rates. 

Per  cent  of  population  carrying  some  form  of  insur* 
ance  against  death,  accident,  or  disease. 

Number  of  arrests,  past  year.  Former  years. 
Chief  causes  of  arrests,  past  year.  Former  years. 
Number  of  policemen  per  thousand  of  population. 
Methods  of  dealing  with  juveniles. 
A  list  of  local  protective  institutions. 
A  summary  of  local  protective  ordinances. 
What  state  or  local  laws  are  much  violated. 
Kinds  of  protection  that  are  inadequately  provided. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

COMMUNITY  STUDIES— RECREATIONAL,  CULTURAL, 
SOCIAL,  AND  RELIGIOUS 

Recreational  facilities.  What  constitutes  the  life  of 
the  people  in  addition  to  its  mere  maintenance  and  the 
preservation  of  health  ?  This  is  the  further  question  to 
be  taken  up  by  the  student  of  community  life.  The  an- 
swer is  most  quickly  found  by  a  study  of  its  means  of 
recreation  and  the  uses  that  are  made  of  them. 

In  rural  communities  there  is  usually  less  time  for 
recreation,  less  permanent,  and  rarely  any  public,  pro- 
vision for  it.  The  principal  play-times  of  the  commimity 
are  on  holidays,  and  then  frequently  a  visit  is  made  to 
a  near-by  town  or  village  instead  of  having  entertain- 
ment provided  in  the  neighborhood.  Shows,  fairs,  ex- 
hibitions, and  occasional  picnics,  parties,  weddings,  or 
dances  furnish  some  recreation.  Even  funerals  are 
sometimes  regarded  as  social  festivities  of  a  solemn 
kind.  In  some  places,  except  in  the  busiest  seasons, 
there  may  be  gatherings  for  baseball.  Horse-racing, 
card-playing,  and  drinking  are  sometimes  engaged  in 
by  groups  of  people  on  Sundays  or  at  other  times.  At 
some  rural  homes  there  are  provisions  for  recreation  in 
the  form  of  croquet  grounds,  swings,  tennis,  and  appa- 
ratus for  indoor  games  that  are  used  by  the  family  and 
neighbors  occasionally. 

Rarely  are  there  to'  be  found  in  a  rural  community 
permanent  groimds,  buildings,  apparatus,  or  institutions 
for  providing  recreation,  nor  do  institutions  for  othei 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  249 

purposes  usually  make  recreation  a  promment  incidental 
feature  of  their  work.  In  some  communities,  however, 
the  Y.M.C.A.  and  other  organizations  are  now  doing  a 
good  deal  to  promote  healthful  recreation. 

In  cities  and  in  nearly  all  except  the  smaller  villages 
the  conditions  are  quite  different.  More  people  of  lei- 
sure are  found  in  such  places  and  work  is  more  special- 
ized, with  far  shorter  hours,  hence  there  is  more  time 
and  inclination  for  recreation  of  some  kind.  Motion- 
picture  entertainments  are  now  provided  almost  every- 
where, while  theaters  are  found  in  all  the  larger  places. 
Generally  there  are  permanent  clubs  of  various  kinds 
for  recreative  purposes  and  other  institutions  that  make 
similar  provision.  These  should  be  studied  to  determine 
the  extent  and  variety  of  facilities  they  offer  and  to  find 
out  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  make  use  of 
them.  The  extent  and  comparative  value  of  amuse- 
ment facilities  provided  by  commercial  institutions, 
clubs  and  societies  and  by  public  means  should  be  de- 
termined. 

If  the  city  provides  no  opportunities  for  play,  then 
the  question  of  the  need  for  such  should  be  investigated. 
This  may  be  done,  after  the  above  facts  have  been  ob- 
tained, by  making  a  detailed  study,  first,  of  the  open 
spaces  where  play  may  be  carried  on,  and,  second,  of 
the  actual  doings  of  children  and  perhaps  of  older  peo- 
ple during  their  leisure  hours. 

The  principal  places  that  may  be  used  are  parks, 
school  playgroimds,  vacant  lots  (with  or  without  per- 
mission of  the  owner),  and  the  streets  which  are  more 
or  less  free  from  traffic.  The  extent  and  location  of 
each  of  these  in  relation  to  the  number  of  inhabitants 
or  number  of  children  should  be  determined. 


260  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

What  children  do  may  be  ascertained  by  going  about 
the  city  for  a  few  days,  observing  various  groups  and 
making  a  record  of  what  they  are  doing  and  where. 
When  the  doings  of  a  few  hundred  children  are  clas- 
sified, it  will  not  be  difficult  to  decide  whether  play 
facilities  and  play  supervision  are  needed. 

A  similar  study  of  how  adults  spend  their  leisure 
time  is  less  easily  made,  but  may  show  with  equal  clear- 
ness whether  there  is  occasion  for  the  organization  of 
special  societies  or  for  public  provision  for  recreation 
for  adults.  If  a  large  number  of  men  dissipate  when- 
ever they  have  a  holiday,  it  is  evident  that  they  need 
opportunities  and  training  that  will  lead  them  to  find 
more  valuable  forms  of  recreation. 

Recreation  facts  to  be  collected :  — 

Number  of  commercial  institutions  for  recreation. 

Days  open  per  year. 

Number  present. 

Number  of  societies  and  clubs  for  recreation. 

Number  of  meetings. 

Membership. 

Attendance. 

Public  provision  for  recreation. 

Extent  and  use  in  more  or  less  detail. 

Acres  of  park,  total  and  per  thousand  of  population. 

Acres  of  playgrounds,  total  and  per  thousand  of  popu- 
lation. 

Number  and  names  of  societies  providing  some  rec- 
reation. 

Number  of  entertainments  given. 

Average  of  attendance. 

Number  of  families  in  a  hundred  having  home  amuse- 
ments and  number  of  times  per  week. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  261 

General  conclusions  and  discussion  of  needs  of  the 
community  and  how  they  may  be  supplied. 

Besides  the  more  or  less  public  recreational  activities 
it  may  be  worth  while  to  study  the  home  recreations 
and  estimate  their  amount  and  significance.  Among 
these  may  be  included  what  are  sometimes  called 
avocations  —  some  form  of  work  engaged  in  after  the 
necessary  work  has  been  done,  but  which  serves  the 
purpose  of  recreation. 

Cultural  influences.  Many  people  find  much  of  their 
recreation  in  cultural  activities  and  in  their  avocations 
so  that  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  them.  In 
general,  however,  there  are  more  permanent  effects 
produced  upon  the  mind  by  cultural  activities  than  by 
those  that  are  merely  recreational.  Theaters  should  be 
classed  as  cultural  institutions,  although  when  they  are 
run  almost  wholly  for  amusement,  they  nearly  lose  their 
cultural  character. 

The  most  distinctly  cultural  institutions  are  libraries, 
museums  of  art,  nature,  and  history,  academies  of  art 
and  science,  lecture  courses,  study  clubs  and  classes  of 
all  kinds,  including  musical  organizations.  Books,  news- 
papers, and  magazines  and  the  statues  and  historical  me- 
morials found  in  various  public  places,  all  appeal  to  the 
intellect  and  the  taste  and  leave  more  or  less  permanent 
impressions.  The  decorative  qualities  of  buildings, 
yards,  and  homes,  and  the  language,  manners,  and  good 
taste  in  dress  of  the  people  are  also  important  cultural 
influences  and  expressions  in  every  community.  All 
that  there  is  in  the  community  indicating  aesthetic  tastes 
and  producing  cultural  effects  in  the  home  through  so- 
cieties and  by  public  provision  should  be  observed  and 
estimated. 


262  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Cultural  facts  to  be  observed  or  estimated :  — 

Number  of  books  in  library. 

Number  of  books  in  relation  to  population. 

Average  number  used  per  person  each  year. 

Per  cent  of  each  class  of  books  in  library. 

Per  cent  of  each  class  used. 

Number  of  branch  libraries. 

Provision  for  special  use  by  children  and  others. 

Number  and  kind  of  museums. 

Days  open. 

Average  attendance. 

Lists  of  academic  study  classes  and  cultural  societies. 

Membership. 

Attendance. 

Number  of  meetings. 

Musical  organizations. 

Entertainments. 

Attendance. 

Number  and  kind  of  theaters. 

Seating  capacities. 

Average  attendance. 

Number  of  occasional  lectures  and  cultui-al  enter- 
tainments yearly. 

Number  and  circulation  of  local  papers. 

Number  of  books  in  homes. 

Number  of  magazines  in  homes. 

Per  cent  of  high-school  graduates  in  community. 

Per  cent  of  college  graduates  in  community. 

Prevalence  of  flowers,  pictures,  and  musical  instru- 
ments in  the  homes. 

Social  intercourse.  In  rural  districts  proximity  and 
incidental  meeting  in  connection  with  economic  activ- 
ities are  among  the  principal  promoters  of  acquaint- 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  253 

ance,  while  in  urban  sections  institutions  play  a  much 
larger  part,  especially  those  concerned  with  recreation 
and  culture.  Church  and  school  are  institutions  which 
play  a  prominent  part  in  promoting  social  intercourse 
in  both  city  and  country.  In  the  country  a  few  people 
are  known  in  many  relations,  while  in  the  city  many 
people  are  met,  but  most  of  them  are  known  in  only 
one  phase  of  their  activities  and  interests.  In  the  rural 
community  there  are  a  few  well-recognized  conven- 
tions, and  public  sentiment  is  manifested  in  gossip  and 
in  the  way  in  which  individuals  are  treated  whenever 
met.  In  cities  each  institution  and  situation  has  its 
special  conventions,  and  disapproval  for  disregarding 
them  is  shown  only  in  that  particular  connection,  while 
the  public  opinion  of  the  city  is  largely  voiced  by  the 
local  newspapers.  In  the  country  each  person  is  con- 
demned or  honored  by  all  according  as  he  does  or  does 
not  conform  to  a  few  simple  standards,  while  in  the 
cily  he  is  judged  by  a  different  standard  by  each  group 
of  people  that  he  meets  in  business,  in  the  drawing- 
room,  at  clubs,  in  politics,  at  church,  or  in  a  gambling- 
hall. 

In  all  personal  association,  however,  external  circum- 
stances play  a  comparatively  small  part  after  people 
have  once  met.  Individualism  is  the  stronger  factor, 
and  determines  who  shall  become  intimate  and  who 
shall  remain  comparative  strangers,  however  often  they 
meet,  who  shall  become  leaders  and  how  people  shall 
group  themselves. 

In  rural  districts  individuality  is  more  evident  than 
in  urban  sections.  In  a  city  one's  actions  are  largely 
regulated  by  special  conventions  for  each  institution 
and  situation.    In   meeting  a  cultured  urban  dweller 


8U  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

you  can  scarcely  tell  how  much  of  his  courtesy  is  an 
expression  of  his  personal  attitude  toward  you  or  merely 
the  conventional  amenities  due  from  one  of  his  class 
and  position  to  one  of  your  class  and  in  that  special 
situation.  Class  distinctions  are  much  more  closely 
drawn  and  the  treatment  you  receive  is  likely  to  be 
quite  different  from  that  given  a  person  of  another 
class.  In  a  rural  community,  with  fewer  class  distinc- 
tions and  less  specialized  conventions,  most  of  the  treat- 
ment accorded  others  is  more  personal  and  individual. 

Notwithstanding  these  differences  leaders  are  to  be 
found  in  both  types  of  community  who  must  be  studied 
in  order  to  understand,  not  only  the  social  intercourse 
of  the  place,  but  the  most  important  factors  in  all  sorts 
of  activities.  The  leader  in  a  rural  community  exerts 
his  influence  rather  by  his  personal  success  and  general 
conduct,  while  in  the  city,  power  is  maintained  to  a 
greater  extent  through  success  in  managing  institutions. 
A  farmer  may  hold  an  influential  place  in  a  rural  com- 
munity without  taking  much  part  in  public  movements 
of  any  kind,  but  in  a  city  a  man's  influence  is  small 
tmless  he  identifies  himself  with  institutions  and  takes 
part  in  public  affairs.  The  power  of  a  rural  leader  de- 
pends most  upon  his  personality  and  that  of  the  urban 
leader  more  upon  the  class  to  which  he  belongs  and 
the  institutions  through  which  he  works. 

The  different  classes  of  people,  the  organizations  and 
the  unorganized  cliques  must  be  noted  in  a  community 
survey,  but  the  situation  can  be  fully  understood  only 
by  studying  the  present  leaders  ostensible  and  actual, 
and  sometimes  it  is  necessary  also  to  look  up  the  his- 
tory of  former  leaders  in  order  to  appreciate  the 
strength  of  prevailing  customs  and  traditions. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  255 

Among  the  most  important  things  to  know  about 
leaders  are :  First,  whether  they  are  real  leaders  or 
only  occupy  the  position  of  leaders;  second,  whether 
they  are  conservative,  trying  to  keep  things  as  they 
have  been,  or  progressive  or  even  radical  in  trying  to 
improve  or  change  them ;  third,  whether  they  are  work- 
ing chiefly  for  their  own  advantage  or  for  the  advance- 
ment of  the  cause  they  uphold  and  the  good  of  the 
people.  A  study  of  leaders  should  result  not  in  mere 
opinions,  but  in  a  body  of  objective  facts  as  to  who  ap- 
pear to  be  leaders  and  just  what  they  have  done  and 
tried  to  do. 

Social  facts  to  be  obtained :  — 

Number  and  characteristics  of  social  classes. 

Social  organizations  among  each  class. 

Other  organizations  serving  social  purposes  and  how. 

Leaders  in  each  class  and  organization,  their  charac- 
teristics, and  what  they  have  done. 

Organizations  and  events  that  promote  acquaintance 
between  all  classes. 

Which  is  more  prominent,  home  or  institutional  so- 
cial life? 

To  what  extent  do  all  members  of  each  family  know 
the  same  people? 

Per  cent  of  divorces  to  marriages. 

What  do  the  members  of  the  same  family  do  in  com^ 
mon  and  how  much  of  the  time  is  spent  with  other 
people  of  their  own  age  and  interests? 

Is  community  sentiment  prominent  and  well  voiced 
80  that  it  can  easily  be  obtained  from  residents  or 
newspapers,  or  can  one  discover  only  individual  and 
class  opinion  on  some  or  all  topics  of  interest? 

To  what  extent  is  there  conduct  opposed  to  the  prev- 


266  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

alent  sentiment  of  the  community  or  the  usual  moral 
and  religious  views  of  people  of  this  country? 

Religious  activity.  Religious  activity,  being  confined 
largely  to  a  single  institution,  the  Church,  is  more 
easily  studied  than  any  previously  discussed  in  this 
chapter.  Religious  surveys  have  also  been  made  to  a 
greater  extent  than  most  other  kinds.  In  cities  they 
have  usually  been  instituted  for  the  practical  purpose 
of  learning  what  people  in  each  section  have  no  connec- 
tion with  the  work  of  the  churches  in  order  that  their 
influence  may  be  extended  to  all.  Sometimes  the  aver- 
age attendance  in  all  the  churches  is  computed  and 
compared  with  church  membership  and  total  popula- 
tion in  the  district,  and  most  churches  have  for  the 
local  church  and  for  the  denomination  statistics  of 
membership  and  contributions. 

Recently,  rather  extensive  church  surveys,  especially 
in  rural  districts,  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  de- 
termining the  number  and  kind  of  churches  that  are 
succeeding  best  in  typical  sections  of  the  country.  In 
Montgomery  County,  Maryland,  for  example,  it  was 
found  that  nearly  half  the  people  were  not  in  church ; 
that  there  was  a  church  to  every  two  hundred  and  forty- 
four  people ;  that  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  the  churches 
were  not  growing ;  that  twenty-nine  per  cent  had  no 
organization  except  Sunday  school ;  that  fifty-seven  per 
cent  had  no  organization  for  young  people  ;  that  ninety- 
four  per  cent  had  no  organization  for  men ;  and  that 
eighty-six  per  cent  were  making  no  effort  to  serve  their 
communities  as  social  centers.  In  Ohio,  it  was  found 
that  about  half  the  churches  with  resident  pastors  and 
one  tenth  of  those  with  no  pastor  were  growing.  In  a 
poorer  agricultural  section  of  three  hundred  and  seventy- 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  257 

eight  country  churclies,  only  four  per  cent  had  resident 
pastors  and  only  twenty-one  per  cent  of  all  the  churches 
were  growing. 

Of  churches  with  less  than  twenty-five  members  in 
rural  Indiana  only  two  per  cent,  while  of  those  of  over 
two  hundred,  seventy-nine  per  cent  were  growing.  The 
attendance  at  church  service  (which  was  not  held  in  all 
churches  every  week)  was  a  little  over  one  fifth  the  popu- 
lation and  the  attendance  at  Sunday  school  a  little  less. 
Of  churches  giving  attention  to  social  and  recreational 
life,  sixty-five  per  cent  were  growing,  while  of  those 
not  so  doing  only  twelve  per  cent  were  growing.  These 
are  only  a  few  of  the  many  truths  brought  out  as  to  the 
relation  of  local  conditions  to  church  life  and  the  rela- 
tive success  of  churches  differently  managed.  It  appears 
that  not  only  do  churches  that  make  a  feature  of  social 
life  prosper,  but  that  in  rural  places  where  other  organ- 
izations supply  that  need,  church  interest  is  increased. 
This  shows  the  close  relation  of  social  to  religious  life, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  many  of  its  forms  are 
believed  to  be  directly  opposed  to  the  work  of  the 
churches.  In  rural  conununities  the  church  and  the 
school  are  the  chief  organizations  supplying  social  life, 
and  if  they  fail  there  is  little  but  association  of  individ- 
uals and  families,  and  among  renters  this  is  temporary. 

Facts  to  be  obtained  regarding  churches :  — 

Per  cent  of  population  who  are  members  of  churches. 

Per  cent  of  population  attending  church  once  a 
week. 

Per  cent  of  population  attending  church  occasionally. 

Proportion  of  number  of  churches  to  population. 

Similar  facts  .for  Sunday  school  and  comparison  with 
former  years  and  with  similar  places. 


258  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

Average  number  of  organizations  connected  with  each 
church. 

Average  membership  of  organizations  connected  with 
each  church. 

Number  of  meetings  per  year  of  organizations  con- 
nected with  each  church. 

Attendance  at  these  meetings. 

Nature  and  work  of  these  organizations. 


CHAPTER  XX 

COMMUNITY  STUDIES  — EDUCATIONAL  SURVEY 

General  considerations.  An  educational  survey  must 
include  many  facts  regarding  all  phases  of  community 
life  and  its  relation  to  the  state,  but  it  concerns  itself 
chiefly  with  one  institution,  i.e.,  the  school.  This  may 
be  studied  in  four  principal  aspects :  (1)  school  equip- 
ment and  control ;  (2)  financial  support  and  manage- 
ment ;  (3)  educational  efficiency;  (4)  social  value  in 
the  sense  of  preparing  pupils  for  taking  part  in  the  life 
of  the  community  and  of  the  state. 

The  standards  for  judgment  of  equipment  are  pretty 
well  established,  while  those  regarding  control  are  in 
controversy. 

School  finances  have  received  most  attention  in  con- 
nection with  a  discussion  of  the  salary  of  teachers  and 
total  cost  of  schools  as  compared  with  other  places,  but 
are  now  being  considered  in  relation  to  the  economic 
condition  of  the  community.  The  financial  management 
of  the  school  as  an  institution  is  being  studied. 

The  third  point,  educational  efficiency,  has  long  been 
a  matter  of  study  and  investigation,  and  recently  objec- 
tive facts  as  to  modes  of  administration  and  educational 
results  have  taken  the  place  of  mere  observation  and 
opinion. 

The  fourth,  the  social  value  of  the  school,  has  only 
within  the  past  few  years  been  made  the  subject  of  ex- 
act study. 

An  independent  and  thorough  survey  of  a  system  of 


260  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

schools  can  be  made  only  by  experts.  Efficient  super- 
intendents, however,  are  making  continuous  or  annual 
surveys  of  the  schools  under  their  charge  which  are 
more  or  less  valuable,  and  some  of  their  yearly  reports 
are  really  better  than  some  of  the  special  survey  reports 
that  have  been  made.  The  school  statistics  collected  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  and  by  the  dif- 
ferent states  give  a  partial  educational  survey  of  con- 
siderable value.  The  most  important  work  that  the 
nation  and  state  can  do  for  education  in  the  local 
community  is  to  increase  the  scope  and  accuracy  of 
these  yearly  reports,  show  the  people  their  significance, 
and  help  them,  if  necessary  by  a  local  survey,  to  see 
more  clearly  the  condition  of  their  own  schools  and  the 
improvements  that  are  needed. 

School  equipment  and  control.  The  material  equip- 
ment of  a  school  system  consists  of  grounds,  buildings, 
furniture,  apparatus,  and  books.  An  objective  survey 
of  these  is  comparatively  easy.  The  facts  as  to  con- 
venience and  suitability  of  location  of  schools  and  the 
character  and  extent  of  the  school  grounds  should  be 
summarized.  In  connection  with  this  the  means  of  get- 
ting to  and  from  school  should  be  noted. 
\  The  buildings  should  all  be  examined  and  the  condi- 
tions found  compared  with  well-established  standards 
of  school  architecture,  seating,  and  sanitation.  The 
lighting,  heating,  ventilating,  and  toilet  systems  should 
receive  careful  attention,  not  only  as  regards  their  con- 
struction and  condition,  but  as  to  the  way  in  which  they 
are  being  used.  Actual  figures  as  to  temperature  and 
light  in  the  rooms  should  be  obtained  and  compared 
with  accepted  standards. 

The  size  and  organization  of   the  body  of  school 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  261 

officials,  the  state  laws  under  which  it  works,  its  rules 
and  methods  of  business,  its  relations  to  the  superin- 
tendent and  his  relations  to  supervisors  and  teachers 
should  be  noted  and  compared  with  conditions  in  other 
places.  Facts  indicating  success  or  deficiency  in  the 
working  of  the  system  of  control  in  that  particular 
community  should  be  collected.  It  is  especially  im- 
portant to  notice  whether  responsibility  is  clearly  de- 
fined and  what  degree  of  control  is  exercised  by  supe- 
riors and  what  freedom  and  initiative  are  accorded 
principals  of  buildings,  special  supervisors,  and  indi- 
vidual teachers. 

The  work  of  the  truant  officer  and  the  character  of 
the  medical  inspection  should  be  carefully  studied  and 
significant  facts  recorded. 

School  finances.  If  the  schools  are  supported  largely 
by  local  taxation,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  this  country, 
the  first  question  to  be  asked  is,  what  is  the  assessed 
value  of  the  property  in  the  place  being  studied  ?  It  is 
not  unusual  to  find,  in  the  same  state,  school  districts 
and  other  administrative  units  with  one  tenth  the 
assessed  valuation  of  others.  Generally  speaking,  the 
thickly  settled  sections  have  a  greater  valuation  per 
person  than  the  thinly  settled  regions.  This  gives  them 
a  financial  advantage  with  regard  to  the  support  of 
schools  that  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  a  thinly 
settled  region  either  a  school  has  to  be  maintained  for  a 
few  children  or  the  children  must  be  transported  con- 
siderable distances.  On  the  other  hand,  urban  districts 
must  tax  themselves  relatively  more  for  purposes  other 
than  educational. 

The  amount  of  money  spent  for  school  purposes  per 
one  thousand  dollars  of  valuation  is  probably  the  best 


262  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

indication  that  can  easily  be  obtained  of  whether  a  com- 
munity can  afford  to  spend  more  on  its  schools  or  not. 
A  better  indication,  but  less  easily  accessible,  would  per- 
haps be  the  percentage  of  average  yearly  income  per 
person  that  is  used  for  school  purposes.  If  the  school 
district  receives  aid  from  the  state,  that  aid  should  be 
proportional  to  the  extent  to  which  the  people  tax  them- 
selves for  their  schools,  rather  than  to  educational  results. 

The  amount  per  child  spent  for  school  purposes  is 
usually  considered  a  pretty  good  indication  of  the 
character  of  the  schools,  providing  they  are  well  ad- 
ministered ;  yet  in  a  district  with  very  few  children,  it 
may  cost  twice  as  much  per  pupil  to  maintain  a  school 
of  the  same  grade  as  in  another  district  where  there 
are  more  children. 

In  the  poorer  and  sparsely  settled  regions  better 
schools  can  be  obtained  only  by  the  help  of  more  state 
aid  than  is  given  proportionally  to  the  cities.  There  is 
another  complication  with  regard  to  amount  spent  per 
pupil,  due  to  the  fact  that  some  districts  have  longer 
school  years  than  others  and  some  have  a  larger  per- 
centage of  children  in  school.  The  amount  spent  per 
pupil  is  never  a  true  index  of  the  value  the  people  set 
upon  their  school,  for  the  town  in  Massachusetts  that 
spends  most  per  pupil  taxes  itself  only  one  fourth  as 
much  per  thousand  dollars  as  some  towns  that  pay 
small  salaries. 

The  amount  per  inhabitant  that  is  spent  on  schools 
is  significant  in  a  general  way,  but  has  no  specific 
meaning,  because  of  the  facts  previously  noted  and  be- 
cause the  number  of  children  in  proportion  to  the  total 
population  varies  greatly,  as  does  also  the  percentage 
of  the  children  that  are  in  the  schools. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  263 

The  practical  questions  in  every  community  are 
these.  How  much  money  is  there  available  for  school 
purposes,  and  if  more  is  needed  can  the  local  com- 
munity afford  and  be  induced  to  raise  more,  or  can 
the  state  be  induced  to  render  more  aid  ?  If  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  inhabitants  are  not  taxing  themselves 
as  much  as  are  those  of  other  places  and  that  they  are 
not  spending  as  much  per  pupil,  it  is  reasonable  to  try 
to  get  them  to  spend  more. 

After  the  amount  that  may  be  used  for  school  pur- 
poses has  been  determined,  the  question  is  how  to 
spend  it  with  the  probability  of  getting  the  largest  re- 
sults. The  tendency  in  the  United  States  is  to  put  com- 
paratively large  amounts  into  buildings  and  equipment 
in  proportion  to  that  spent  in  running  the  schools.  It 
is  usually  easier  to  raise  money  for  a  fine  new  building 
than  for  a  good  superintendent  and  teachers. 

Turning  to  the  problem  of  running  expenses,  the 
first  question  is,  how  many  days  shall  there  be  in  the 
school  year?  In  most  cities  there  are  forty  weeks  of 
school,  but  in  rural  districts,  where  the  children  can 
work  on  the  farm  and  where  money  is  scarce,  the  time 
may  be  less  than  haK  that.  In  cities  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  spend  some  of  the  school  money  in  play- 
ground work,  or  to  add  to  the  regular  term  a  number 
of  weeks  of  vacation  school  for  those  who  have  nothing 
to  do  and  want  to  attend  school. 

The  next  question  is  that  of  the  school  day.  It  must 
be  admitted  that  it  is  not  good  business  to  use  the  school 
plant  only  twenty-five  or  thirty  hours  a  week ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  children  cannot  profitably  engage  in  the 
highly  specialized  activity  of  book  work  for  more  than 
four  to  six  hours  a  day.  The  hours  of  use  of  the  school 


264  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

plant  may  be  increased  either  by  lengthening  the  school 
day  for  the  pupils  and  varying  the  work  of  the  school  so 
as  to  include  many  manual,  recreational,  and  cultural 
activities,  as  well  as  the  specifically  intellectual,  that 
the  pupils  may  not  become  fatigued,  or  that  the  school 
may  be  run  on  the  departmental  plan  as  in  Gary,  or 
in  some  other  way  so  that  the  children  will  not  all  be 
there  at  the  same  time,  but  so  that  all  will  have  the 
usual  number  of  hours  of  schooling  and  perhaps  also 
manual  and  recreational  training.  The  first  method  is 
feasible  in  all  communities  except  in  the  short  days  of 
winter  in  rural  districts,  while  the  second  is  especially 
suited  to  large  centers  of  population  where  the  distance 
to  school  is  short,  and  where  there  are  many  teachers 
so  that  adjustment  of  hours  and  classes  is  more  easily 
made. 

One  of  the  important  questions  next  to  be  decided  for 
elementary  schools  in  the  cities  is  the  size  of  classes.  In 
many  rural  districts  they  must  be  small,  but  where 
there  are  many  children  they  may  be  made  of  any  size 
desired  and  the  cost  per  year  for  each  class  will  be 
approximately  the  same.  Until  recently,  the  size  of 
class  for  the  best  results  has  usually  been  a  matter  of 
opinion,  but  some  studies  have  been  made  which  indi- 
cate that  much  more  than  forty  in  a  room  means  slower 
progress,  while  lowering  the  number  much  below  thirty 
has  little  effect  in  increasing  the  rate  of  progress.  In- 
vestigations have  not  yet  proved  it,  but  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  more  usual  policy  of  hav- 
ing primary  classes  larger  than  those  of  higher  grades 
is  not  economical,  since  beginners  need  individual  in- 
struction more  than  any  others  and  are  likely  to  have 
to  repeat  if  they  do  not  have  it. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  265 

In  high  schools  the  size  of  classes  is  complicated  by 
the  variety  of  subjects  offered.  In  a  small  school  it  is 
impossible  to  offer  many  subjects  without  having  very 
small  classes,  but  in  a  large  school  the  size  of  the  classes 
may  easily  be  regulated.  In  laboratory  courses,  how- 
ever, they  are  of  necessity  smaller  than  in  literary 
courses.  In  both  elementary  and  high  schools  it  is  a 
question  of  administration  rather  than  of  finance  as  to 
whether  eighty  pupils  shall  be  taught  in  two  classes  by 
two  teachers  or  whether  they  shall  be  taught  in  one 
class  by  one  teacher  and  given  individual  aid  by  an- 
other, as  in  the  Batavia  schools. 

Another  problem  that  concerns  both  finance  and 
efficiency  of  work,  regards  the  number  of  supervisors  as 
compared  with  the  number  of  teachers  to  be  employed, 
and  the  extent  to  which  these  supervisors  shall  oversee 
all  the  work  of  the  schools  or  only  special  departments 
of  it. 

Another  important  question  is  that  of  how  to  deal 
with  exceptional  children.  Shall  they  be  allowed  to  re- 
main with  other  children,  receiving  comparatively  little 
benefit  and  perhaps  making  the  work  of  the  teacher 
less  efficient,  or  shall  teachers  be  employed  to  instruct 
them  individually  and  in  comparatively  small  classes. 
The  latter  method  seems  to  be  the  more  expensive,  but 
it  is  now  believed,  considering  the  increased  progress 
made  by  both  normal  and  exceptional  children,  that  it 
is  really  more  economical. 

In  studying  a  school  system,  if  the  records  are  prop- 
erly kept,  it  is  just  as  possible  to  show  the  exact  cost 
per  year  of  instructing  each  pupil  in  the  various  sub- 
jects as  it  is  for  the  manufacturer  to  figure  the  cost  of 
each  process  in  the  manufacture  of  each  article.  It  may 


266  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

be  shown,  for  instance,  that  the  cost  of  teaching  Latin 
per  student  hour  of  instruction  is  less  than  the  cost  of 
teaching  manual  training  or  giving  a  laboratory  course 
in  science,  because  in  the  latter  cases  more  apparatus 
is  required  and  the  classes  must  be  smaller.  When  such 
studies  or  reports  are  made,  as  they  have  been  in  New- 
ton, Massachusetts,  it  is  possible  for  the  people  of  the 
community  to  know  just  how  much  is  being  spent  each 
year  for  various  educational  purposes  and  to  decide  in- 
telligently in  what  ways  they  wish  more  or  less  money 
spent  in  the  future. 

The  question  of  salary  to  be  paid  teachers  and  super- 
visors or  of  increase  of  salary  is  one  of  both  finance 
and  administration.  In  general  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
where  higher  salaries  are  paid  more  efficient  teachers 
are  secured,  although  this  is  not  necessarily  true  of  a 
city  or  in  the  case  of  individual  teachers.  It  is  weU  in 
the  school  survey  to  study  not  only  the  average  salaries, 
but  the  methods  of  promotion,  the  degree  of  prepara- 
tion required  for  beginning  teachers,  and  the  provisions 
made  for  their  improvement  and  advancement  while  in 
service.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  usual  custom 
of  increasing  salary  each  year  until  a  maximum  is 
reached  is  not  entirely  satisfactory.  The  usual  scholas- 
tic examinations  are  very  poor  tests  of  teaching  ability, 
and  objective  means  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  teachers 
are  not  yet  well  developed.  Hence,  personal  judgment 
is  now,  and  perhaps  must  always  remain,  an  important 
means  of  determining  the  worth  of  the  teacher. 

Educational  efficiency.  Entirely  aside  from  cost,  we 
may  look  upon  the  school  as  an  institution  for  bringing 
about  certain  educational  results.  We  may  examine 
the  course  of  study  to  find  out  what  its  aims  are  and 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  267 

then  observe  the  processes  of  teaching  and  judge  of 
their  effectiveness,  or  we  may  study  the  effects  upon 
the  pupils  by  observing  and  testing  them. 

An  expert  in  education,  by  visiting  typical  schools, 
may  form  a  fairly  correct  judgment  as  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  teaching  that  is  being  given  and  may  be  able  to 
suggest  means  of  improvement.  Such  a  survey,  however, 
yields  little  but  subjective  data,  and  if  challenged  there 
is  no  way  of  proving  the  correctness  of  the  opinion  of 
the  person  who  made  the  survey.  This  is  the  reason 
why  some  surveys  have  produced  little  besides  contro- 
versy. 

If  a  survey  of  teaching  processes  is  made,  it  should 
contain  as  much  objective  description  and  exact  quota- 
tion as  possible,  and  if  it  is  not  made  throughout  all 
the  schools,  it  should  be  made  in  those  that  are  admitted 
to  be  typical  or  else  in  a  certain  number  determined  by 
chance.  Taking  into  account,  however,  the  unnatural 
conditions  produced  in  a  school  by  such  a  survey  and 
the  personal  feelings  aroused,  it  is  usually  better  not 
to  make  it  a  prominent  feature.  Observation  of  the 
actual  teaching  processes  and  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment should  be  made  by  supervisors  in  their  more  or 
less  continuous  survey  of  the  schools ;  but  when  a  spe- 
cial study  of  a  school  system  is  being  made  by  an  out- 
sider, it  is  better  for  the  study  of  the  teaching  processes 
to  be  used  chiefly  as  an  aid  to  interpreting  results  ob- 
tained in  other  ways  and  in  suggesting  improvement. 

More  definite  objective  facts  may  be  obtained  by 
testing  the  results  of  teaching  than  by  observing  its 
processes.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  only 
the  more  superficial  results  can  be  accurately  measured. 
The  effects  of  teaching  upon  the  morals  and  upon  the 


268  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

practical  and  cultural  interests  of  pupils  cannot  be  ade- 
quately and  accurately  expressed  in  figures.  Neither 
can  intellectual  growth  be  determined  with  exactness, 
but  it  is  possible  to  test  with  considerable  success  ver- 
bal knowledge,  manual  skill,  and  achievements  in  com- 
plex processes  of  certain  types  involving  both  knowl- 
edge and  skill. 

The  ordinary  examination  is  largely  a  test  of  knowl- 
edge. If  it  is  to  be  used  in  a  school  survey  and  com- 
parisons made  with  other  school  systems,  then  the 
particular  questions  used  must  be  based  on  common 
portions  of  the  various  courses  of  study,  and  a  compari- 
son should  also  be  made  as  to  the  average  time  spent  in 
each  school  system  on  each  subject  or  topic.  Of  the 
various  tests  of  knowledge,  that  of  spelling  is  most  easy 
to  make,  but  in  order  that  the  results  may  be  accurate, 
words  that  are  commonly  taught  in  all  schools  must  be 
used.  Lists  of  words  prepared  by  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  for  each  grade,  and  found  to  be  spelled  cor- 
rectly by  seventy  per  cent  of  the  children  in  a  large 
number  of  school  systems,  furnish  a  good  standard  for 
comparison,  providing  no  opportunity  is  given  for  spe- 
cial drill  on  those  particular  words,  just  previous  to  the 
giving  of  the  test. 

Methods  of  testing  general  knowledge  by  means  of 
vocabulary  tests  will  probably  soon  be  perfected  and 
standards  established. 

Tests  of  knowledge  of  the  essentials  in  the  various 
subjects  taught  will  probably  be  developed  so  as  to  be 
of  general  and  permanent  value,  but  as  yet  none  have 
been  produced  that  are  short,  include  only  essentials, 
and  that  cannot  easily  be  prepared  for  by  special 
coaching. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  269 

Several  tests  of  manual  skill,  especially  of  handwrit- 
ing, have  been  devised  and  are  proving  useful  both  for 
teaching  and  for  survey  purposes. 

The  most  promising  kind  of  tests,  however,  are  those 
of  ability  in  complex  processes  involving  knowledge, 
skill,  and  intelligence  of  a  special  kind.  The  best  ex- 
amples of  these  are  the  Courtis  tests  in  arithmetic.  These 
test  the  ability  of  pupils  to  read  numbers  and  problems, 
,  understand  them,  and  write  the  answers  with  a  speed 
and  a  degree  of  accuracy  that  may  be  computed  and 
compared  with  well-established  standards  obtained  by 

rany  thousands  of  tests. 
More  recently,  tests  of  ability  to  read  orally  or  si- 
\  lently  and  to  understand  and  reproduce  the  thought  are 
\being  developed.  These  doubtless  will  soon  be  perfected 
and  standards  established  so  that  they  may  be  used  in 
estimating  the  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  being  given 
in  any  school  system.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  to 
produce  accurate  tests  of  language  or  composition  abil- 
ity, but  these  as  yet  are  not  very  reliable  or  satisfactory. 
Perhaps  no  single  general  test  can  ever  be  developed, 
but  special  tests  for  certain  grades  and  for  certain  kinds 
of  composition  may  be  perfected  and  made  useful. 

Although  only  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  provid- 
ing tests  of  the  results  of  teaching  that  are  scientifically 
accurate,  easily  given,  and  that  cannot  be  prepared  for 
by  special  coaching,  yet  enough  has  been  done  so  that 
objective  facts  showing  what  the  pupils  in  different 
grades  can  do  in  various  fundamental  processes  may  now 
form  an  important  part  of  the  results  of  the  study  of  a 
school  system. 

If  the  school  records  have  been  properly  kept,  it  is 
possible  to  form  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  efficiency  of 


270  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

the  school  system  in  relation  to  its  course  of  study  and 
standards  of  achievement  by  studying  the  statistics  of 
retardation  and  acceleration.  If  the  statistics  do  not 
show  the  amount  of  repetition  and  double  promotion, 
the  age  statistics  for  the  different  grades  will  furnish 
a  pretty  good  measure  of  the  percentage  of  the  retarda- 
tion and  acceleration  in  completing  the  required  work 
in  the  different  grades.  If  there  is  a  great  deal  of  re- 
tardation, it  means  either  that  the  course  of  study  is 
too  hard,  the  standards  of  promotion  too  high,  or  the 
teaching  inefficient.  A  low  percentage  of  retardation 
may  mean  that  the  course  of  study  is  too  easy  or  the 
standards  of  promotion  too  low,  or  it  may  mean  that 
the  teaching  is  unusually  efficient. 

School  systems  have  in  the  past  often  been  judged 
by  the  number  of  grade  pupils  meeting  the  high-school 
entrance  requirements  and  the  number  of  high-school 
graduates  who  meet  college-entrance  requirements.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  such  a  method  of  judging  of 
a  school  system  is  too  narrow,  because  only  the  few 
pupils  selected  by  the  system  are  made  the  basis  and 
the  tests  of  efficiency  are  made  only  in  lines  of  instruc- 
tion prescribed  primarily  by  the  colleges.  In  a  large 
high  school,  where  many  courses  are  offered,  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  college  preparatory  work  may  very  well 
be  judged  by  the  success  of  pupils  going  to  college.  As 
conditions  have  been,  however,  this  would  be  a  very 
false,  narrow,  and  misleading  standard  by  which  to 
judge  of  the  efficiency  of  the  whole  school  system.  If 
colleges  would  admit,  regardless  of  subjects  pursued,  as 
Chicago  University  is  now  doing,  then  the  number  who 
succeed  in  their  college  work  would  be  a  good  evidence  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  school  systems  from  which  they  come. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  271 

Social  value  of  the  school.  The  primary  purpose  of 
the  school  as  a  public  institution  is  to  give  children 
and  young  people  the  training  that  will  fit  them  for 
taking  an  effective  part  in  the  work  and  progress  of 
the  community  and  the  state.  The  success  of  the 
schools  in  doing  this  work  is  indicated  in  part  by  the 
way  in  which  the  people  of  the  community  regard 
them,  as  shown  by  the  amount  that  they  give  for  their 
support  and  by  the  extent  to  which  they  are  patronized. 
The  latter  is  pretty  well  indicated  by  the  percentage  of 
all  children  between  five  and  twenty  enrolled  in  the 
schools  and  by  the  percentage  of  attendance. 

Another  very  good  indication  as  to  whether  the  work 
of  the  school  is  appreciated  is  found  in  the  number  of 
children  who  continue  not  only  through  the  elementary 
schools,  but  through  the  secondary.  If  all  went  through 
the  high  school,  about  one  third  of  all  the  children  in 
school  would  be  in  high  school,  whereas  the  average 
for  the  country  is  only  about  one  eighth.  Local  eco- 
nomic conditions  are,  of  course,  much  more  favorable  in 
some  conununities  than  in  others  for  pupUs  to  continue 
in  school.  In  many  instances,  however,  the  small  pro- 
portion of  children  in  high  school  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  standards  of  promotion  are  so  strict  that 
many  are  shut  out.  Again,  many  leave  school  because 
they  are  not  interested  and  do  not  see  the  value  of 
what  they  are  learning.  The  facts  iu  these  respects  in 
a  given  community  may  be  ascertained  by  collecting 
statistics  as  to  the  causes  of  leaving  school.  Such  sta- 
tistics show  that  in  many  places  failure  in  certain  re- 
quired subjects,  especially  algebra  and  Latin,  has  often 
been  the  occasion  of  leaving. 

This  suggests  another  method  of  studying  the  social 


272  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

value  of  the  schools,  that  of  examining  the  contents  of 
a  course  of  study.  One  way  of  doing  this  that  has  re- 
cently been  tried  is  to  test  successful  adult  members  of 
the  community  as  to  their  knowledge  of  the  things  the 
children  are  required  to  learn.  In  Springfield,  Illinois, 
it  was  found  that  eleven  of  the  most  prominent  citizens 
failed  in  an  examination  in  spelling,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  history  that  was  based  upon  the  required 
work  of  the  seventh  grade.  Extensive  tests  of  this 
kind  may  result  in  changes  in  the  course  of  study  that 
will  better  fit  them  to  conditions  of  life  as  they  now 
exist. 

Another  method,  which  is  being  tried  in  Cincinnati, 
is  to  study  the  pupils  leaving  school  and  compare  their 
success  in  various  lines  with  their  school  records. 

Employers  have  been  asked  to  tell  in  what  respects 
pupils  coming  to  them  from  the  schools  are  proficient 
or  deficient,  but  as  yet  such  studies  have  not  been  suf- 
ficiently extensive,  systematic,  or  scientific  to  show  what 
changes  are  needed. 

The  suitability  of  the  school  to  local  conditions  should 
receive  some  attention,  but  this  should  not  be  the  only 
basis  for  estimating  their  value,  because  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  children  are  likely  to  move  to  other 
places  where  the  conditions  are  different.  It  is  well, 
however,  to  inquire  regarding  the  extent  to  which  the 
work  of  the  school  is  based  upon  and  connected  with 
geographical  and  sociological  facts  that  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  community.  In  the  prevocational  and  the 
vocational  work  of  the  schools  there  should  also  be  a 
careful  study  of  the  industries  of  the  vicinity,  and  the 
courses  of  study  and  the  work  should  be  so  planned  as 
to  prepare  pupils  for  the  local  vocations  that  they  may 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  273 

wish  to  enter.  In  this  connection  attention  should  also 
be  given  to  what  is  being  done  by  the  schools  in  the 
way  of  vocational  guidance. 

Another  index  of  the  social  value  of  the  school  is  its 
influence  upon  the  adult  population.  This  influence 
may  be  shown  in  two  ways:  by  its  teaching  being 
passed  on  from  the  children  to  their  elders  (common 
in  foreign  sections)  and  by  the  extent  to  which  the 
school  buildings  are  used  for  community  purposes. 

Specific  facts  to  be  tabulated:  — 
Equipment. 

Nimiber  of  school  buildings  and  of  rooms  in  each. 

Number  of  standard-size  rooms. 

Number  over  and  under  standard  size. 

Number  of  rooms  above  and  below  standard  lighting. 

Number  of  rooms  above  and  below  standard  heating. 

Amount  and  distribution  and  use  of  school  grounds. 

Number  of  buildings  with  a  good  toilet  system. 

Number  of  buildings  with  a  poor  toilet  system. 
Control. 

Size  of  school  board  or  committee. 

How  placed  in  office. 

Number  of  meetings  per  year. 

Chief  subjects  considered. 

By  whom  are  teachers  nominated? 

Is  the  superintendent  the  responsible  head  of  the 
school  or  the  mouthpiece  of  the  board? 

What  are  the  chief  school  regulations? 

Number  of  male  and  female  teachers. 

What  is  the  proportion  of  supervisors  to  teachers? 

What  degree  of  freedom  do  teachers  have? 

How  are  promotions  and  salaries  of  teachers  deter- 
mined ? 


274  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

How  many  teachers'  meetings  per  year  ? 

What  is  done  to  promote  study  and  progress  among 
teachers  ? 

Number  of  teachers  with  normal  school  or  other 
special  preparation. 

Number  of  teachers  in  service  less  than  three  years. 

Number  of  teachers  in  service  between  three  and 
ten  years. 

Number   of  teachers   in   service   between  ten  and 
thirty  years. 

Number  of   teachers   in   service  more  than  thirty 
years. 

Summary  of  the  reports  of  the  attendance  and  medi- 
cal officials  of  the  school  or  similar  facts  other- 
wise obtained. 
Financial  support  and  management. 

Wealth  of  school  district  per  inhabitant. 

Value  of  school  plant. 

Annual  cost  of  running  schools. 

Annual  cost  for  salaries  of  teachers,  superintendent, 
and  supervisors. 

Annual  cost  for  supplies. 

School  tax  per  thousand  dollars  of  valuation. 

Average  cost  per  pupil  in  elementary  schools. 

Average  cost  per  pupil  in  high  school. 

Average  cost  per  inhabitant. 

Percentage  of  public  funds  spent  for  schools. 

Average  salaries  of  grade  teachers. 

Average  salaries  of  high-school  teachers. 

Detailed  salary  schedule. 

Average  size  of  all  schools  in  the  grades. 

Average  size  of  all  high-school  classes. 

Number  of  schools  and  classes  of  each  size. 


COMMUNITY  STUDIES  276 

Number  of  hours  given  to  each  subject  per  year. 

Tabulation  of  the  cost  per  student  hour  of  instruc- 
tion in  each  subject. 

Number  of  special  classes  in  the  elementary  school. 

Number  of  pupils  in  special  classes. 

Average  cost  per  pupil. 
Efficiency  of  work. 

School  population. 

School  enrollment. 

School  attendance. 

Percentage  of  children  of  each  age  in  schooL 

Number  of  children  in  each  grade. 

Number  of  children  of  each  age  in  each  grade. 

Estimates  of  percentage  of  retardation. 

Estimates  of  percentage  of  acceleration. 

Number  of  repeaters  each  year. 

Number  of  double  promotions  each  year. 

General  character  of  teaching  methods. 

Description  of  tests  used  to  determine  teaching  re- 
sults with  tabulations  and  comparisons. 
Social  value. 

School  population. 

School  enrollment. 

School  attendance. 

Number  attending  beyond  age  required  by  law. 

Percentage  of  children  in  high  school. 

Percentage  of  graduates  of  high  school  taking  higher 
education. 

Tables  of  incomes  of  persons  of  different  degrees  of 
education. 

Facts  furnished  by  employers  as  to  fitness  of  school 
graduates. 

Facts  showing  the  relation  of  the  school  work  to  the 


276  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

conditions  and  life  of  the  community  in  vocational 

and  other  lines. 
Tabulated  list  of  causes  of  leaving  school. 
Extent  of  community  use  of  school  plant. 
Results  of  tests  of  adults  with  course  of  study. 
Results  of  other  tests  of  the  usefulness  of  school 

work. 
Evidences  of  the  effects  of  schools  upon  recreations, 

morals  and  Interests  of  pupils  and  graduates. 


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INDEX 


Ability,  10, 11,  22. 

Accidents,  60;   protection  against, 

68-70, 242-43. 
Advertising  and  standardization,  60- 

54. 
Esthetic,  84,  89. 
Africa,  104. 
Agriculture,  23, 127. 
Aims,  125. 
Amusements,   85;   development  of 

games  and,  79-80. 
Anthropology,  2. 
Art,  15,  17,  84,  86,  90. 
Artistic  leaders,  12. 
Australia,  188. 
Australian  ballot,  210. 

Balance  of  nature,  20-22. 

Banking,  49. 

Banks,  73,  238. 

Behavior,  a  psychological  view  of, 

32-39 ;  consciousness  and,  32-34. 
Biological  view  of  development,  19- 

30. 
Biology,  2. 
Birth-rate,  25. 
Boards  of  public  welfare,  74. 

Capital,  48. 

OaAtP   28 

Ceremonies,  121 ;  religious,  116. 

China,  124, 205. 

Chinese,  188,  205,  207. 

Christianity,  189. 

Church,  96,  107, 126,  256,  257. 

Cities,  73,  74, 116,  227;  machines  and 

growth  of,  54-55. 
City  planning,  217,  218. 
Civilization,  8,  10,  64,  107,  134,  128, 

205. 
Civilized,  13.  20,  26, 122. 
Classes,  12, 172;  and  customs,  12-14; 

burdensome,  43^44;  social,  97-98. 
Commerce,  61. 
Common  consciousness,  33. 
Communities,  rural  and  urban,  210- 

12   229—30 
Community,  7,  95,  110,  129,  130,  142, 

148,  150,  162,  166,  167,  169,  170,  194; 

and  its  functions,  201-14. 
Community  studies,  general,  215-32; 

economic,  233-40;   protective,  240- 

47 ;  recreational,  248-51 ;   cultural, 

251-52 ;  social,  252-56 ;  religious,  266- 

58 ;  educational,  259-76. 
Competition,  8,  26. 


Consciousness  and  behavior,  32-34. 

Consumption,  45. 

Control  of  recreation,  81-82. 

Cooperation,  4, 8, 9, 10, 246 ;  economic, 
42-43. 

CoSperative,  5, 10,  33,  38,  69,  86. 

Corporations,  49. 

Courtis,  134,  269. 

Crime,  64 ;  protection  against,  240^42. 

Criminals,  43,  64. 

Cultural  education,  151-63. 

Cultural  influences,  251. 

Cultural  needs,  39. 

Cultural  needs  and  activities,  84-91. 

Culture,  exchange  of,  86-88. 

Curiosity,  84. 

Customs,  5,  8,  9,  12, 14,  16, 17,  60,  98, 
103, 104, 192;  and  classes,  12-14;  re- 
lation of  religion  and  morals  to, 
101-02;  marriage  and,  187-89. 

Death-rate,  25, 242. 

Democracy,  98. 

Denmark,  212. 

Development,  49;  biological,  19-30; 

of  institutions  of  government,  60- 

62;  of  laws,  64-66;  of  higher  edu- 

cation,  172-74. 
Disease,  60;  protection  against,  6&< 

68,242-43. 
Divorce,  195-98. 

Economic  conditions,  233-36. 

Economic  education,  148-51. 

Economic  needs,  39;  and  activities, 
41-56;  consumption  of  wealth,  44- 
45. 

Economic  resources,  236-40. 

Economics,  3,  36,  50. 

Education,  a  need  of  every  social 
group,  119-20;  primitive,  120-22; 
civilized,  122-25;  standardization 
in,  137-40 ;  general  and  vocational, 
140-42;  tests  of,  179-«1;  general 
character  of  -elementary,  145-46 ; 
economic,  148-51 ;  protective,  151 ; 
cultural,  151-53;  recreational  and 
social,  153-54;  general  and  voca- 
tional, 161-65;  dominance  of  higher, 
172-74;  higher  vocational,  181-84; 
protective  regulation  and,  243-46. 

Educational  efficiency,  266-73. 

Educational  needs,  39,  119-85. 

Educational  surveys,  259-76. 

Efficiency,  74,  207 ;  of  workers,  B5-66 ; 
educational,  26&-73. 


290 


INDEX 


Efliciency  engineering,  216. 

Employment,  44. 

Environment,  19,  20,  21. 

Etliics,  2,  113. 

Ethnology,  2. 

Eugenics,  28-30. 

Evolution,  4;  of  group  action,  7-18; 

of  liuman  characteristics,  25-30. 
Examinations,  177,    268 ;    markings 

and  tests,  133-37. 
Exchange  of  culture,  86-88. 

Family,  7,  28.  29,  59,  68,  72,  93,  94,  97, 
107,  223,  224,  226,  255;  as  a  social 
group  and  institution,  186-200. 

Feeble-minded,  28,  29,  30,  72. 

Fires,  69,  243. 

Folkways,  13. 

France,  25. 

Gary,  264. 

Geographical  conditions,  219-20. 

Geographical  influences,  7-8. 

Geography,  2. 

German,  160. 

Germany,  158. 

Giddings,  33. 

Government,  development  of,  60-62; 

and  protection,  72-74. 
Greece,  85. 
Greeks,  188. 
Group,  1,  3,  19,  34,  37,  103,  106,  108; 

family  as  a  social,  186-200. 
Group  action,  33 ;  evolution  of,  7-18  ; 

products  of,  14-17. 
Group  education,  need  o£,  119-20. 
Group  loyalty,  106-07. 

Hereditary,  9. 
Heredity,  30,  43, 192. 
History,  3. 
Home.  126,  150. 
Housing,  67,  68,  222-29. 
Hygiene,  127. 

Imitation,  35. 

India,  27. 

Indians,  102, 192. 

Individualism,  253. 

Individuals,  34,  39,  49,  61,  62,  92, 105, 
106, 112,  176,  194. 

Industrial  leaders,  12. 

Industries,  63,  148,  158,  159,  164,  172; 
machines  and,  46-48;  regulation  of , 
56. 

Inheritance,  30. 

Instincts,  32,  84, 112;  and  social  phe- 
nomena, 3;  social,  of  man,  34-36; 
play,  76-77. 

Institution:  family  as  a  social,  186- 
200. 

Institutions.  5,  8,  14, 15, 16.  48,  56,  71, 
72,  73,  98,  99.  124,  170,  174,  246,  248; 
and  production,  48-49;  and  govern- 
ment, 60-62;  and  recreations,  80- 
81 ;  and  culture,  89;  and  social  life, 
96-97;  and  public  opinion,  109-11; 


community,  and  progress,  204-05; 

survey  of,  229-30. 
Insurance,  49,  73,  243. 
Intelligence,  16,  19,  26,  28,  33,  46,  47, 

48,  104. 
Invention,  24;  and  culture,  88-89. 

Japan,  98. 
Japanese,  189. 
Judges,  64. 

Knowledge,  14, 15, 16, 17. 

Language,  14,  86,  87. 

Law,  of  diminishing  returns,  22-24. 

Laws,  14,  53,  56,  60,  61,  65,  66,  67,  68, 
69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  116,  195 ;  develop- 
ment (k,  64-66. 

Leaders,  11-12,  13,  35,  60,  61,  63,  64, 
101,  105,  172,  174,  178,  182,  183,  210, 
222  255. 

Literature,  86,  127. 

Loyalty,  group,  106-07. 

Machinery,  80,  94. 115. 

Machine,  production  and  growth  of 

cities,  54-55. 
Machines,  14,  15, 16;  and  industries, 

46-48 :  capital  and  managers,  48. 
Malthus,  24,  25;  law  of,  24. 
Managers,  49;  and  machines,  48. 
Manufacturer,  30,  51,  52,  53,  55,  111. 
Manufacturing,  23,  50. 
Marking,  133-37. 
Marriage,  9,  25,  28, 255 ;  customs,  187- 

89;  regulation  of,  194-95. 
Massachusetts,  128,  129,  266. 
Mather,  114. 
Mining,  23. 
Mob,  32. 

Moral  education,  154. 
Moral  needs,  39 ;  and  religious  needs, 

101-18. 
Morals,  168;  and  public  opinion,  109- 

11 ;  and  utility,  112-13. 
Mores,  13. 

Needs,  and  behavior,  32-39 ;  common, 
36-37;  and  instincts,  37-38;  classi- 
fication of.  38,  39;  economic,  41-56; 
values  and  wealth,  41 ;  protective, 
59-75;  recreative.  76-83;  cultural, 
84-91 ;  social,  92-100 ;  moral  and  re- 
ligious, 101-18 ;  educational,  119-85. 

Organization,  of  schools,  128-31. 

Philology.  2. 

Play,  85,  92 ;  and  recreation  in  rela- 
tion to  work,  77-78;  relation  to  cul- 
ture, 84-85. 

Playgrounds,  73,  249. 

Play  instinct,  76-77. 

Political  science.  3. 

Polyandry,  190,  191. 

Polygamy,  190,  191,  192. 

Polygyny,  190. 


INDEX 


291 


Population,  8,  64;  growth  of,  25-28; 
survey  of,  220-22. 

Prevention  and  protection,  72-74. 

Priest,  11, 12. 

Primitive  community,  202-03. 

Primitive  education,  120-22. 

Primitive  protective  activities,  59- 
60. 

Printing,  88. 

Production,  tools  and  wealth,  45-46; 
machine,  and  growth  of  cities,  54- 
55. 

Products,  standardization  of,  50-54. 

Protection,  36 ;  internal,  62-64 ; 
against  disease,  66-68  ;  against  ac- 
cident, 68-70  ;  of  workers,  70-72  ; 
and  prevention,  72-74  ;  against 
crime  and  injustice,  240-42 ;  against 
disease  and  accident,  242-43. 

Protective  education,  151. 

Protective  needs  and  activities,  39, 
59-75. 

Protective  regulation  and  educa- 
tion, 243-46. 

Psychological  view  of  behavior,  32- 
39. 

Psychology,  2,  3,  32, 134. 

Punishment,  60,  66 ;  morals  and,  104- 
07. 

Recreation,  36, 141. 
Recreational  activity,  256-58. 
Recreational  and  social  education, 

153-54. 
Recreational  facilities,  248-51. 
Recreative  needs  and  activities,  39, 

76-83. 
Regulation,  63,  105,  106,  192  ;   of  in- 
dustries, 56  ;  of  marriage,  194-95  ; 

protection  and  education,  243-46. 
Regulative  activities,  enlargement 

and  specialization  of,  107-08. 
Religion,  2,  85. 
Religious  activity,  256-58. 
Religious  beliefs,  60,  84, 113. 
Religious  education,  154. 
Religious  needs,  39, 121 ;  moral  and, 

101-18. 
Renaissance,  173. 
Romans,  61, 188. 
Rural  and  urban  communities,  210- 

12;  and  urban  life,  230-31. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  268. 

Schools,  73, 145;  aims  and  functions 
of,  125-28;  organization  and  con- 
trol of,  128-31;  administration  of, 
131-32  ;  equipment  and  control  of, 
260-61  ;  finances  of,  261-66 ;  social 
value  of,  271-73. 

Science,  2,  174. 

Scientific  knowledge  and  belief,  113- 
15. 


Scientific  leaders,  12. 

Shaman,  11, 12,  60. 

Social  character  of  culture,  85-^6. 

Social  education,  153-54. 

Social  instincts,  34-36. 

Social  needs,  b9,  92-100. 

Social  progress  and  community  ac- 
tion, 205-09. 

Social  value  of  school,  271-73. 

Sociological  phenomena,  38-39. 

Specialization,  163,  202  ;  of  social  in- 
tercourse, 93-96;  of  regulative  in- 
fluences, 107-08 ;  in  education,  167- 
61. 

Springfield,  128,  272. 

Standardization,  in  advertising,  50- 
54 ;  in  education,  137-40. 

Superman,  27. 

Surveys,  value  of,  215-16 ;  purpose 
of,  216-17  ;  how  made,  217-19  ;  of 
geographical  conditions,  219-20;  of 
population,  220-22 ;  of  housing  con- 
ditions, 222-29;  of  institutions,  229- 
30;  of  economic  conditions,  233-36; 
of  economic  activities,  236-39;  of 
protection  against  crime  and  in- 
justice, 240  -  42  ;  of  protection 
against  disease  and  accident,  242- 
43;  of  recreational  facilities,  248-51; 
of  cultural  influences,  251-52  ;  of 
social  intercourse.  252-56;  of  re- 
ligious activity,  256-58;  educa- 
tional, 259-76. 

Survival,  26. 

Switzerland,  197. 

Tests,  133-37,  179-81. 

Thibet,  190. 

Tools,  14, 15 ;  and  wealth,  46-46. 

Tradition,  14,  222. 

Transportation,  55,  73,  219. 

Universities,  133, 176. 

Urban  and  rural  communities,  210- 

12. 
Urban  and  rural  life,  229-30. 
Utility  and  morals,  112. 

Values,  41. 

Vocational  courses,  165-70. 
Vocational  education,  tests  of,  179- 
81 ;  higher,  181-84. 

War,  9,  11,  14,  62,  85,  107. 

Warrior,  11,  13, 101. 

Wealth,  43 ;    needs   and  value,  41 ; 

economic  consumption  of,  44-45; 

and  tools,  45-46. 
Work,  85,  92 ;  in  relation  to  play,  77- 

78  ;  relation  to   culture  and  play, 

84-85. 
Workers,  47,  49,  159,  173;  eflaciency 

of,  55-^6. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


U).URL  MAY  4  _  1988 

m  1 7  ^9^^ 


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